Corpus sync: neutrality remakes, note hygiene, datasheet relocation, transformer-split cross-refs
---
title: Concrete Paving, Curbs, and Sidewalks
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−### Testing for acceptance shall not be performed by the Contractor or by an agency under the Contractor's direction, because the testing entity must be independent of the party whose work it accepts. {note}
+### Testing for acceptance shall not be performed by the Contractor or by an agency under the Contractor's direction, because the testing entity must be independent of the party whose work it accepts.
### The testing technician shall be certified for the field tests performed (slump, air, temperature, and specimen casting), and the laboratory shall be accredited for the strength tests.
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### Most exterior site pavement, curb, and sidewalk in a freezing climate is Exposure Class F3, because it is exposed to water and to deicing chemicals, whether applied directly or tracked from vehicles. {note}
+### The freeze-thaw and deicer exposure class per ACI 318 shall be specified for the pavement, based on its exposure to water and to deicing chemicals.
+
```datasheet
label: Freeze-Thaw / Deicer Exposure Class (ACI 318)
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### Concrete in Exposure Class F3 shall meet the ACI 318 limits on the quantity of supplementary cementitious materials, because excessive substitution reduces deicer-scaling resistance.
−### Deicing chemicals shall not be applied to the concrete during the first winter after placement, because the surface has not fully matured and early deicer exposure is a leading cause of surface scaling. {note}
+### Deicing chemicals shall not be applied to the concrete during the first winter after placement, because the surface has not fully matured and early deicer exposure is a leading cause of surface scaling.
## Cold Weather Concreting {toc}
### Cold weather, defined by ACI 306 as a period when the air temperature is at or below 40°F or is expected to fall below 40°F during the protection period, slows hydration and threatens the concrete with freezing before it gains enough strength to resist the expansion of freezing water. {note}
+### Concrete shall not be placed on a frozen subgrade or base, nor on a subgrade containing frozen material, because the subgrade thaws beneath the slab and creates a soft, settling support that cracks the slab.
+
+### Concrete placed in cold weather shall be delivered, placed, and protected at the minimum temperatures of ACI 306 and maintained above freezing until it has reached the strength required to resist freezing.
+
```datasheet
label: Cold Weather Protection Measures
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```
−### Concrete shall not be placed on a frozen subgrade or base, nor on a subgrade containing frozen material, because the subgrade thaws beneath the slab and creates a soft, settling support that cracks the slab.
−
−### Concrete placed in cold weather shall be delivered, placed, and protected at the minimum temperatures of ACI 306 and maintained above freezing until it has reached the strength required to resist freezing.
−
### Calcium chloride and admixtures containing chlorides shall not be used to accelerate set where reinforcement, dowels, or tie bars are present, because chlorides corrode embedded steel; a non-chloride accelerator shall be used instead.
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### Hot weather, defined by ACI 305 as any combination of high air temperature, low humidity, wind, and solar radiation that accelerates moisture loss and hydration, causes rapid slump loss, plastic shrinkage cracking, and reduced ultimate strength. {note}
+### Hot weather protection measures shall be specified for placement under ACI 305 hot-weather conditions, to control slump loss, plastic shrinkage cracking, and strength loss.
+
```datasheet
label: Hot Weather Protection Measures
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```
−### Coarse aggregate shall be sound and resistant to freeze-thaw deterioration, because a non-durable (D-cracking-susceptible) aggregate fails the concrete from within regardless of the air content of the paste. {note}
+### Coarse aggregate shall be sound and resistant to freeze-thaw deterioration, because a non-durable (D-cracking-susceptible) aggregate fails the concrete from within regardless of the air content of the paste.
## Air Entrainment {toc}
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### Air entrainment is provided by an air-entraining admixture conforming to ASTM C260, and is verified in the field by the pressure method (ASTM C231), not assumed from the mixture design. {note}
+### Concrete subject to freeze-thaw exposure (Class F1, F2, or F3) shall contain entrained air at the target content for the exposure class and nominal maximum aggregate size, commonly about 6 percent total air for a 1 in. nominal maximum aggregate, within the tolerance of ASTM C94.
+
```datasheet
label: Total Air Content (freeze-thaw exposure, 1 in. NMAS)
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−### Concrete subject to freeze-thaw exposure (Class F1, F2, or F3) shall contain entrained air at the target content for the exposure class and nominal maximum aggregate size, commonly about 6 percent total air for a 1 in. nominal maximum aggregate, within the tolerance of ASTM C94.
−
### Air content shall be measured at the point of placement at the frequency required by this standard, and concrete outside the specified air range shall be rejected. {note}
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### The water-cementitious materials ratio is the dominant control on both strength and freeze-thaw durability, and adding water at the site to ease placement raises that ratio, weakening the surface exactly where scaling resistance is needed. {note}
+### The water-cementitious materials ratio shall not exceed the maximum for the applicable exposure class, commonly 0.45 by mass for freeze-thaw and deicer exposure (Class F3).
+
```datasheet
label: Maximum Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio
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```
+### Slump shall be as required for the placement method, and shall not be increased by adding water beyond the approved mixture; where higher workability is needed, a water-reducing admixture (ASTM C494) shall be used instead.
+
```datasheet
label: Target Slump at Placement
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```
−### The water-cementitious materials ratio shall not exceed the maximum for the applicable exposure class, commonly 0.45 by mass for freeze-thaw and deicer exposure (Class F3).
−
−### Slump shall be as required for the placement method, and shall not be increased by adding water beyond the approved mixture; where higher workability is needed, a water-reducing admixture (ASTM C494) shall be used instead.
−
### Slip-formed curb and slip-formed pavement shall use a lower slump than hand-placed work so the extruded shape holds its edge without slumping.
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### Site concrete pavement is designed on flexural strength (modulus of rupture) because it carries load in bending, but it is most commonly specified and accepted on compressive strength for ease of field testing, with a corresponding minimum value. {note}
+### Concrete shall achieve the specified 28-day compressive strength, commonly 4000 psi for vehicular pavement and curb, as shown on the drawings and the mixture design.
+
```datasheet
label: Specified 28-Day Compressive Strength
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+### Where the pavement design specifies flexural strength (modulus of rupture), the mixture shall be qualified and accepted on flexural strength, and the correlation to compressive strength used for field acceptance shall be established with the mixture design.
+
```datasheet
label: Strength Acceptance Basis
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−### Concrete shall achieve the specified 28-day compressive strength, commonly 4000 psi for vehicular pavement and curb, as shown on the drawings and the mixture design.
−
−### Where the pavement design specifies flexural strength (modulus of rupture), the mixture shall be qualified and accepted on flexural strength, and the correlation to compressive strength used for field acceptance shall be established with the mixture design.
−
# Pavement Section and Thickness {toc}
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### The base shall be at the correct elevation and cross slope within tolerance, uniformly compacted, free of soft spots, and dry and unfrozen at the time of placement.
−### The base shall be moistened (not saturated) before placing concrete in hot, dry conditions so that the dry base does not draw water out of the bottom of the slab. {note}
+### The base shall be moistened (not saturated) before placing concrete in hot, dry conditions so that the dry base does not draw water out of the bottom of the slab.
# Reinforcement {toc}
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### Jointed plain concrete pavement, with no distributed reinforcement and load transfer carried by aggregate interlock and dowels at joints, is the standard and most economical site pavement when the contraction joints are spaced closely enough to control cracking; distributed reinforcement is added only where panels are large, slabs are irregular, or crack-width control is required. {note}
+### The pavement reinforcement type shall be specified, using jointed plain pavement with closely spaced contraction joints unless panel size, geometry, or crack-width control requires distributed reinforcement.
+
```datasheet
label: Pavement Reinforcement Type
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```
−### Welded wire reinforcement shall be supplied in flat sheets rather than rolls, because rolled reinforcement springs back and ends up at the bottom of the slab where it does no good. {note}
+### Welded wire reinforcement shall be supplied in flat sheets rather than rolls, because rolled reinforcement springs back and ends up at the bottom of the slab where it does no good.
### Distributed reinforcement shall be positioned and held at the design height in the upper third of the slab on chairs or supports, and shall not be pulled up from the subgrade ("hooking") after the concrete is placed, because hooking leaves the steel at an unknown and ineffective depth. {note}
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### Dowels are smooth round bars that span a transverse construction (or contraction) joint to transfer wheel loads across the joint without tying the two slabs together, allowing the joint to open and close while keeping the two slab edges at the same elevation; without load transfer the joint faults, producing a bump and accelerating joint failure. {note}
+### Dowels at vehicular pavement transverse construction joints shall be smooth, epoxy-coated round bars conforming to ASTM A1078, of the diameter shown on the jointing detail.
+
```datasheet
label: Load Transfer Dowels at Transverse Joints
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−### Dowels at vehicular pavement transverse construction joints shall be smooth, epoxy-coated round bars conforming to ASTM A1078, of the diameter shown on the jointing detail.
−
### Dowels shall be installed parallel to the pavement surface and to the direction of traffic, held in alignment by a dowel basket or an approved support, and one half of each dowel length shall be coated with a bond breaker so the joint can open and close. {note}
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### Tie bars are deformed bars that hold adjacent slabs together across a longitudinal joint so the joint stays tightly closed and aggregate interlock is maintained; unlike dowels, tie bars are bonded on both sides and are not intended to permit movement, only to keep lanes from separating. {note}
+### Tie bars at longitudinal joints shall be deformed bars conforming to ASTM A615, of the size and spacing shown on the jointing detail, commonly spaced at about 24 in. to 30 in. on center.
+
```datasheet
label: Tie Bars at Longitudinal Joints
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−### Tie bars at longitudinal joints shall be deformed bars conforming to ASTM A615, of the size and spacing shown on the jointing detail, commonly spaced at about 24 in. to 30 in. on center.
+### Tie bars shall not be used at transverse contraction or expansion joints, because tying those joints closed prevents the movement they exist to accommodate and forces cracking elsewhere.
−### Tie bars shall not be used at transverse contraction or expansion joints, because tying those joints closed prevents the movement they exist to accommodate and forces cracking elsewhere. {note}
−
# Jointing {toc}
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### Contraction joints are formed by sawing (or tooling) a continuous groove that creates a weakened plane through part of the slab depth, so that as the concrete shrinks it cracks downward beneath the groove rather than randomly across the panel. {note}
+### Contraction joints shall be sawn to a depth of not less than one-fourth of the slab thickness for conventional wet-cut joints, or to 1-1/4 in. for early-entry dry-cut joints in slabs up to about 9 in. thick, so that the weakened plane reliably activates the crack at the joint.
+
```datasheet
label: Contraction Joint Method
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```
+### Contraction joints shall be sawn as soon as the concrete has hardened enough that the saw does not ravel the edge, and before the concrete has cooled and shrunk enough to crack on its own; sawing too late is the most common cause of random cracking because the slab has already cracked before the joint was cut.
+
+### Contraction joint spacing shall not exceed the spacing on the jointing plan, and as a general guide shall not exceed about 24 to 36 times the slab thickness in inches (expressed in feet), and panels shall be kept as square as practicable, because long, narrow panels crack across their middle.
+
```datasheet
label: Maximum Contraction Joint Spacing
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−### Contraction joints shall be sawn to a depth of not less than one-fourth of the slab thickness for conventional wet-cut joints, or to 1-1/4 in. for early-entry dry-cut joints in slabs up to about 9 in. thick, so that the weakened plane reliably activates the crack at the joint. {note}
−
−### Contraction joints shall be sawn as soon as the concrete has hardened enough that the saw does not ravel the edge, and before the concrete has cooled and shrunk enough to crack on its own; sawing too late is the most common cause of random cracking because the slab has already cracked before the joint was cut. {note}
−
−### Contraction joint spacing shall not exceed the spacing on the jointing plan, and as a general guide shall not exceed about 24 to 36 times the slab thickness in inches (expressed in feet), and panels shall be kept as square as practicable, because long, narrow panels crack across their middle.
−
### Contraction joints shall be continued through any integral curb cast with the pavement and aligned with the pavement joints, because a curb that is not jointed in line with the slab cracks at the unrelieved restraint. {note}
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### The most common cause of cracking radiating from a manhole, a column, or a light base in the middle of a pavement is a missing isolation joint around that object, and the fix is to detail isolation at every penetration and fixed edge. {note}
+### Isolation joints with a full-depth preformed filler conforming to ASTM D1751 or D1752 shall be provided wherever the pavement, walk, or curb abuts a building, a column, a foundation, a fixed structure, an existing pavement, or a utility penetration.
+
```datasheet
label: Isolation Joint Filler
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```
+### Isolation joints shall be provided around every fixed object that penetrates or abuts the slab, including manholes, catch basins, light pole bases, hydrants, sign posts, and bollards.
+
+### The preformed filler shall extend the full depth of the slab so no concrete bridges across the joint and locks the slab to the fixed object.
+
```datasheet
label: Isolation Joint Filler Thickness
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−### Isolation joints with a full-depth preformed filler conforming to ASTM D1751 or D1752 shall be provided wherever the pavement, walk, or curb abuts a building, a column, a foundation, a fixed structure, an existing pavement, or a utility penetration.
−
−### Isolation joints shall be provided around every fixed object that penetrates or abuts the slab, including manholes, catch basins, light pole bases, hydrants, sign posts, and bollards.
−
−### The preformed filler shall extend the full depth of the slab so no concrete bridges across the joint and locks the slab to the fixed object.
−
## Construction Joints {toc}
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### Sealing the sawn and isolation joints keeps water and incompressible debris out of the joint, protecting the joint from spalling and keeping water from reaching and softening the base; joints in pavement subject to deicers and to traffic are sealed, while many light-duty and pedestrian joints are left unsealed by design. {note}
+### Joint sealing shall be specified for the pavement, sealing joints subject to vehicular traffic or deicer exposure and permitting light-duty or pedestrian joints to be left unsealed by design.
+
```datasheet
label: Joint Sealing
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### Curbs contain the pavement edge, direct surface drainage to inlets, and protect adjacent landscaping and walks; curb-and-gutter combines the curb with a flat gutter pan that carries the flow line, and the curb may be cast in forms, slip-formed (extruded) by machine, or cast integrally with the pavement slab. {note}
+### Curb and curb-and-gutter shall be constructed to the shape, dimensions, and flow-line grade shown on the curb detail and the grading plan.
+
```datasheet
label: Curb Type
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```
+### Slip-formed (extruded) curb shall use a low-slump mixture that holds the extruded shape without slumping or tearing, and the trailing edge shall be finished and cured the same as cast-in-place work.
+
```datasheet
label: Curb Placement Method
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−### Curb and curb-and-gutter shall be constructed to the shape, dimensions, and flow-line grade shown on the curb detail and the grading plan.
−
−### Slip-formed (extruded) curb shall use a low-slump mixture that holds the extruded shape without slumping or tearing, and the trailing edge shall be finished and cured the same as cast-in-place work.
−
### Integral curb cast monolithically with the pavement shall be jointed in line with the pavement contraction and isolation joints, because an unrelieved integral curb cracks at every point of restraint.
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### The two controlling slope limits are the running slope (in the direction of travel), which shall not exceed 1:20 (5 percent) for a walk to remain an accessible route without ramp provisions, and the cross slope (perpendicular to travel), which shall not exceed 1:48 (about 2 percent). {note}
+### Sidewalks on an accessible route shall be not less than 36 in. wide clear, and shall be wider where the project, the AHJ, or the use requires.
+
```datasheet
label: Sidewalk Width
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```
+### The cross slope of an accessible walk shall not exceed 1:48 (2.0 percent), and the Contractor should target a cross slope below the maximum so that construction tolerance does not produce a non-compliant finished slope.
+
```datasheet
label: Maximum Walk Cross Slope (ADA)
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```
+### The running slope of an accessible walk shall not exceed 1:20 (5.0 percent); where the grade must be steeper, the walk becomes a ramp and shall meet the ramp running-slope, landing, and handrail requirements of the ADA Standards.
+
```datasheet
label: Maximum Walk Running Slope (ADA)
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```
−### Sidewalks on an accessible route shall be not less than 36 in. wide clear, and shall be wider where the project, the AHJ, or the use requires.
+### The Contractor shall verify the as-built running and cross slopes of every accessible walk and ramp with a level or digital inclinometer before the concrete is accepted, because slope non-compliance discovered after acceptance requires removal and replacement.
−### The cross slope of an accessible walk shall not exceed 1:48 (2.0 percent), and the Contractor should target a cross slope below the maximum so that construction tolerance does not produce a non-compliant finished slope. {note}
−
−### The running slope of an accessible walk shall not exceed 1:20 (5.0 percent); where the grade must be steeper, the walk becomes a ramp and shall meet the ramp running-slope, landing, and handrail requirements of the ADA Standards.
−
−### The Contractor shall verify the as-built running and cross slopes of every accessible walk and ramp with a level or digital inclinometer before the concrete is accepted, because slope non-compliance discovered after acceptance requires removal and replacement. {note}
−
## Curb Ramps {toc}
### Curb ramps provide the transition from the sidewalk to the street at crossings, and their running slope, landing, flare, and detectable warning are all regulated; the curb ramp running slope shall not exceed 1:12 (8.33 percent). {note}
+### The curb ramp running slope shall not exceed 1:12 (8.33 percent), and the ramp shall provide a level landing at the top within the cross-slope tolerance so a wheelchair user can stop and turn.
+
```datasheet
label: Maximum Curb Ramp Running Slope (ADA)
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```
−### The curb ramp running slope shall not exceed 1:12 (8.33 percent), and the ramp shall provide a level landing at the top within the cross-slope tolerance so a wheelchair user can stop and turn.
−
### The transition between the curb ramp and the street (the gutter and counter slope) shall be within the ADA limits so that the combined grade break is not a tripping or wheel-catching hazard.
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### Detectable warning surfaces are the truncated-dome pattern installed at curb ramps and flush transitions to alert pedestrians with vision impairments to the edge of the vehicular way; the truncated dome is the only detectable warning pattern the ADA recognizes. {note}
+### Detectable warning surfaces shall consist of truncated domes conforming to the size, spacing, and contrast requirements of the applicable ADA Standards or PROWAG.
+
```datasheet
label: Detectable Warning Surface Type
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```
+### The detectable warning surface shall extend 24 in. in the direction of travel and the full width of the curb ramp run or flush transition.
+
```datasheet
label: Detectable Warning Depth (direction of travel)
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```
−### Detectable warning surfaces shall consist of truncated domes conforming to the size, spacing, and contrast requirements of the applicable ADA Standards or PROWAG.
+### The rows of truncated domes shall be aligned perpendicular to the grade break between the ramp and the street so that a wheelchair user can track between the rows of domes.
−### The detectable warning surface shall extend 24 in. in the direction of travel and the full width of the curb ramp run or flush transition.
−
−### The rows of truncated domes shall be aligned perpendicular to the grade break between the ramp and the street so that a wheelchair user can track between the rows of domes. {note}
−
### The detectable warning surface shall contrast visually with the adjacent walking surface (light-on-dark or dark-on-light) so it is detectable by pedestrians with low vision.
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## Surface Finish {toc}
−### Exterior pavement and walks receive a broom (textured) finish, dragging a broom across the freshly floated surface to create a slip-resistant texture; a smooth steel-troweled finish, standard for interior floors, shall not be used on exterior flatwork because it is dangerously slick when wet or icy. {note}
+### Exterior pavement and walks receive a broom (textured) finish, dragging a broom across the freshly floated surface to create a slip-resistant texture; a smooth steel-troweled finish, standard for interior floors, shall not be used on exterior flatwork because it is dangerously slick when wet or icy.
```datasheet
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### Exterior pavement, walks, and curb gutters shall receive a broom finish that provides a slip-resistant surface texture, with the broom strokes run transverse to the direction of travel on walks and ramps.
−### A hard steel-troweled (burnished) finish shall not be used on exterior flatwork, because it produces a surface that is slippery when wet or frozen and that traps bleed water beneath a dense skin, increasing scaling. {note}
+### A hard steel-troweled (burnished) finish shall not be used on exterior flatwork, because it produces a surface that is slippery when wet or frozen and that traps bleed water beneath a dense skin, increasing scaling.
### Overworking and overtroweling the surface shall be avoided, and finishing shall not be performed while bleed water is present on the surface, because finishing bleed water into the surface weakens it and promotes scaling. {note}
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### Where a liquid membrane-forming curing compound is used, it shall conform to ASTM C309, and white-pigmented (Type 2) compound should be used in hot, sunny conditions to reduce solar heat gain at the surface.
−### The curing compound shall be applied uniformly at the manufacturer's coverage rate immediately after the surface water sheen has disappeared, in a continuous unbroken membrane, because gaps in the membrane cure unevenly and leave weak streaks. {note}
+### The curing compound shall be applied uniformly at the manufacturer's coverage rate immediately after the surface water sheen has disappeared, in a continuous unbroken membrane, because gaps in the membrane cure unevenly and leave weak streaks.
### Curing shall continue for not less than the required duration, commonly 7 days for exterior flatwork at normal temperatures, extended in cold weather when hydration is slower.
−### A curing compound shall not be applied where a bonded topping, sealant, or coating will later be placed, unless the compound is compatible with that material or is removed, because the curing membrane is a bond breaker. {note}
+### A curing compound shall not be applied where a bonded topping, sealant, or coating will later be placed, unless the compound is compatible with that material or is removed, because the curing membrane is a bond breaker.
# Tolerances {toc}
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### The finished surface shall be true to the grades and cross slopes shown, checked with a 10-foot straightedge, and shall drain positively to the inlets and gutters without birdbaths that hold water. {note}
+### The finished surface deviation under a 10-foot straightedge shall not exceed 1/4 in., laid in any direction.
+
```datasheet
label: Surface Flatness Tolerance (10 ft straightedge)
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```
−### The finished surface deviation under a 10-foot straightedge shall not exceed 1/4 in., laid in any direction.
−
### The finished pavement shall drain positively to the gutters and inlets [[drawing: as indicated on the grading and drainage plan]] with no birdbaths that hold water deeper than 1/8 in. after a rain.
## Thickness Tolerance {toc}
−### Each slab shall be placed to the thickness shown on the pavement section, verified by cores or by survey, and a deficient slab reduces the load capacity in proportion to the square of the thickness and is not correctable except by removal and replacement. {note}
+### Each slab shall be placed to the thickness shown on the pavement section, verified by cores or by survey, and a deficient slab reduces the load capacity in proportion to the square of the thickness and is not correctable except by removal and replacement.
```datasheet
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### Forms shall be set true to the line, grade, and cross slope shown, rigidly braced so they do not move under the weight and vibration of placement, and clean and oiled so the concrete releases cleanly.
−### Form grades and the resulting cross slopes on accessible walks and ramps shall be checked before placement, because correcting a slope after the concrete is placed means removal. {note}
+### Form grades and the resulting cross slopes on accessible walks and ramps shall be checked before placement, because correcting a slope after the concrete is placed means removal.
## Placement and Consolidation {toc}
### Concrete shall be deposited as near as practicable to its final position, spread, and consolidated so it fills the forms and surrounds the reinforcement, dowels, and tie bars without segregating.
−### Concrete shall not be moved long distances by vibration, because vibrating concrete along the slab segregates it, leaving a coarse, weak zone where it was over-vibrated and a paste-rich zone where it ended up. {note}
+### Concrete shall not be moved long distances by vibration, because vibrating concrete along the slab segregates it, leaving a coarse, weak zone where it was over-vibrated and a paste-rich zone where it ended up.
### Concrete shall not be retempered with added water to restore workability lost to time or heat, because the added water raises the water-cementitious ratio and weakens the surface.
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### Fresh concrete shall be protected from rain, which dilutes and pits the surface, and from foot and vehicle traffic until it has gained sufficient strength.
−### The pavement shall not be opened to construction or vehicular traffic until the concrete has reached the strength required for the imposed loads, commonly verified by field-cured cylinders or by a minimum age established for the mixture. {note}
+### The pavement shall not be opened to construction or vehicular traffic until the concrete has reached the strength required for the imposed loads, commonly verified by field-cured cylinders or by a minimum age established for the mixture.
# Field Quality Control and Testing {toc}
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## Defective Work {toc}
−### Cracked, scaled, spalled, honeycombed, or out-of-tolerance concrete shall be removed and replaced to the nearest joint, not patched at the surface, because a surface patch on a cracked or scaled slab does not restore the slab and fails again. {note}
+### Cracked, scaled, spalled, honeycombed, or out-of-tolerance concrete shall be removed and replaced to the nearest joint, not patched at the surface, because a surface patch on a cracked or scaled slab does not restore the slab and fails again.
### Random cracks that cross a panel (not at a joint) shall be evaluated by the Engineer of Record, and slabs with structural cracks shall be removed and replaced to the nearest joint lines.
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## Normal weathering, routine joint resealing, and damage from Owner deicer practices, snowplowing, or loads exceeding the design are Owner maintenance obligations and are not warranty items.