+---
+title: Ground Improvement (Aggregate Piers and Soil Mixing)
+category: Sitework
+toc_depth: 3
+description: >
+ When to use: Ground improvement of soft, loose, or otherwise inadequate native
+ soils prior to placing shallow foundations, slabs-on-grade, embankments, or
+ pavement subgrades, using aggregate piers (rammed aggregate piers, vibro stone
+ columns, vibro replacement), deep and mass soil mixing (DSM), or jet grouting
+ to increase bearing capacity, reduce settlement, and improve liquefaction
+ resistance. Covers the design-build specialty subcontractor scope (site
+ investigation, design, installation, and load testing) for granular
+ reinforcement and cementitious stabilization methods on commercial, industrial,
+ infrastructure, and institutional projects where native soils cannot directly
+ support shallow foundations but mass excavation/replacement or driven deep
+ foundations are cost-prohibitive.
+ Not intended for: Driven piles, drilled shafts, auger-cast piles, helical
+ piles, or micro-piles whose load transfer is end-bearing or skin friction to
+ deep strata (see sync/deep-foundations); controlled modulus columns / rigid
+ inclusions that act structurally as piles with a load transfer platform (see
+ sync/deep-foundations); mass earthwork cut/fill and compaction of native soils
+ (see sync/earthwork); thin-layer lime, fly ash, or cement surface treatment of
+ pavement subgrade (see sync/soil-stabilization); performance monitoring with
+ inclinometers, settlement plates, and piezometers (see
+ sync/geotechnical-instrumentation-and-monitoring); shallow foundation bearing
+ pressure selection and footing sizing (see sync/shallow-foundations); and
+ hazardous soil or groundwater abatement (see sync/hazardous-material-abatement).
+---
+
+# Scope {toc}
+
+## This standard covers the design-build specialty ground improvement scope: site investigation supplementation, ground improvement design, installation, and in-place verification of aggregate piers, deep and mass soil mixing, and jet grouting used to improve native soils beneath shallow foundations, slabs-on-grade, embankments, and pavement subgrades.
+
+## Ground improvement is a composite-soil strategy: discrete reinforcing or stabilizing elements are installed on a grid through inadequate native soil so that the treated zone, acting together with the soil between elements, carries shallow-foundation loads at a higher allowable bearing pressure and with less settlement than the untreated soil would. {note}
+
+## It is selected where native soils cannot support shallow foundations directly but where mass over-excavation and replacement, or driven deep foundations to competent strata, are slower or more costly than improving the soil in place. {note}
+
+## Two mechanistic families are covered. {note}
+
+### Granular reinforcement methods (rammed aggregate piers, vibro stone columns, vibro replacement) build stiff, free-draining columns of compacted crushed stone that reinforce and densify the surrounding soil and, below the water table, provide drainage paths that aid liquefaction resistance. {note}
+
+### Cementitious stabilization methods (deep soil mixing, mass soil mixing, jet grouting) blend or inject a cement or lime binder into the soil in place to create columns, panels, or treated blocks of hardened soil-cement with engineered strength and stiffness. {note}
+
+## Controlled modulus columns (CMC) and other rigid inclusions occupy a gray area: they are thin grout or concrete columns that act structurally as small piles bearing through a load transfer platform, closer to deep foundations than to composite ground improvement. {note}
+
+### Controlled modulus columns and rigid inclusions are specified under [[sync/deep-foundations]] unless the project geotechnical engineer of record explicitly classifies them as ground improvement for the specific site. {note}
+
+## Where ground improvement supports a shallow foundation system, the foundation itself (footing sizing, bearing pressure selection, reinforcement) is specified under [[sync/shallow-foundations]]; this standard delivers the improved bearing condition that foundation design assumes. {note}
+
+## Method selection, target performance, and element layout are site-specific and depend on a project geotechnical investigation; this standard establishes the performance framework, submittal requirements, materials, installation controls, and verification testing common to all covered methods. {note}
+
+# Referenced Standards {toc}
+
+## Equipment, materials, and installation shall comply with the latest adopted edition of each of the following unless a specific edition is cited or the authority having jurisdiction has adopted a different edition.
+
+## Where referenced standards conflict, the more stringent requirement shall govern unless the geotechnical engineer of record directs otherwise in writing.
+
+| Standard | Title |
+|----------|-------|
+| ICC IBC Chapter 18 | International Building Code, Soils and Foundations (Section 1808 special foundation systems) |
+| ASTM D1143/D1143M | Standard Test Method for Deep Foundations Under Static Axial Compressive Load |
+| ASTM D4832 | Standard Test Method for Preparation and Testing of Soil-Cement Slurry Test Cylinders |
+| ASTM D2166/D2166M | Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil |
+| ASTM D6913/D6913M | Standard Test Methods for Particle-Size Distribution (Gradation) of Soils Using Sieve Analysis |
+| ASTM C131/C131M | Resistance to Degradation of Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact (Los Angeles Machine) |
+| ASTM D4945 | Standard Test Method for High-Strain Dynamic Testing of Deep Foundations |
+| ASTM D2573/D2573M | Standard Test Method for Field Vane Shear Test in Cohesive Soil |
+| ASTM D1586/D1586M | Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and Split-Barrel Sampling of Soils |
+| ASTM D5777 | Standard Guide for Using the Seismic Refraction Method for Subsurface Investigation |
+| FHWA NHI-16-027 | Ground Modification Methods Reference Manual, Volume I (Federal Highway Administration) |
+| UFGS 31 62 50 | Unified Facilities Guide Specification, Densified Aggregate Piers |
+| ACI 207.1R | Guide to Mass Concrete |
+| ACI 228.1R | Report on Methods for Estimating In-Place Concrete Strength |
+| AASHTO R 69 | Determination of Ground Modification Method and Design Parameters |
+
+## FHWA NHI-16-027 and UFGS 31 62 50 are publicly available reference documents that establish the design methodology, material requirements, and quality control practices on which the requirements of this standard are based; they may be cited directly by the engineer in project-specific design. {note}
+
+# Submittals {toc}
+
+## Action Submittals {toc}
+
+### The specialty ground improvement contractor shall submit the following action submittals for review before mobilizing:
+
+- Ground improvement design report and calculations, stamped and signed by a professional geotechnical engineer licensed in the project jurisdiction, demonstrating that the design satisfies the specified bearing capacity, settlement, and (where applicable) liquefaction-resistance criteria
+- Treatment layout drawings showing element type, diameter, depth, grid spacing, and area replacement ratio for each foundation, slab, and embankment area
+- Equipment data describing the installation rig, mandrel or auger or jet-grout monitor, tamper or vibrator, and instrumentation used to record installation parameters
+- For aggregate piers and stone columns: aggregate source, gradation test results, and Los Angeles abrasion results
+- For deep soil mixing and jet grouting: binder type and source, mix design, target binder dosage, water-cement ratio, and trial-mix or bench-scale unconfined compressive strength results
+- Load test plan identifying proof and verification test locations, reaction arrangement, loading schedule, and acceptance criteria
+- Quality control plan describing installation parameter recording, aggregate or spoil volume tracking, and field acceptance testing
+- Spoil and grout-return management and disposal plan for wet soil mixing and jet grouting
+
+```datasheet
+label: Action submittals required
+type: checkbox
+options:
+ - Stamped ground improvement design report and calculations
+ - Treatment layout drawings (type, diameter, depth, spacing, replacement ratio)
+ - Installation equipment data
+ - Aggregate gradation and LA abrasion results
+ - Binder mix design and trial-mix UCS results
+ - Load test plan
+ - Quality control plan
+ - Spoil and grout-return management plan
+default:
+ - Stamped ground improvement design report and calculations
+ - Treatment layout drawings (type, diameter, depth, spacing, replacement ratio)
+ - Installation equipment data
+ - Load test plan
+ - Quality control plan
+```
+
+### The ground improvement design report shall be stamped and signed by a professional geotechnical engineer licensed in the project jurisdiction.
+
+### The treatment layout shall identify each element by type, diameter, design depth, grid spacing, and area replacement ratio.
+
+### The contractor shall not mobilize installation equipment until the ground improvement design report has been reviewed and accepted.
+
+## Informational Submittals {toc}
+
+### The contractor shall submit the following informational submittals:
+
+- Qualifications of the installing contractor and the licensed geotechnical engineer of record for the ground improvement design
+- Supplementary geotechnical investigation data (borings, cone penetration tests, laboratory results) used to support the design where the project geotechnical report is insufficient
+- Preconstruction survey of adjacent structures, slabs, and utilities within the zone of influence
+- Manufacturer or system-licensor installation procedures for proprietary aggregate pier, soil mixing, or jet grout systems
+
+```datasheet
+label: Informational submittals required
+type: checkbox
+options:
+ - Contractor and engineer-of-record qualifications
+ - Supplementary geotechnical investigation data
+ - Preconstruction adjacent-structure and utility survey
+ - System-licensor installation procedures
+default:
+ - Contractor and engineer-of-record qualifications
+ - Preconstruction adjacent-structure and utility survey
+```
+
+## Closeout Submittals {toc}
+
+### The contractor shall submit the following closeout submittals before final acceptance:
+
+- As-built installation records for every element, including location, depth, and recorded installation parameters
+- Aggregate volume-per-foot logs (granular methods) or binder dosage and spoil-return logs (cementitious methods) for each element
+- Load test reports with measured load-settlement data and the engineer's interpretation against acceptance criteria
+- Core test reports (unconfined compressive strength) for deep soil mixing and jet grout verification
+- Post-improvement in-situ verification test results (SPT, CPT, or field vane) where specified
+- Letter of certification from the geotechnical engineer of record that the installed ground improvement satisfies the design intent
+
+```datasheet
+label: Closeout submittals required
+type: checkbox
+options:
+ - As-built installation records (all elements)
+ - Aggregate volume or binder dosage logs
+ - Load test reports with interpretation
+ - Core UCS test reports (cementitious methods)
+ - Post-improvement in-situ verification results
+ - Engineer-of-record certification letter
+default:
+ - As-built installation records (all elements)
+ - Aggregate volume or binder dosage logs
+ - Load test reports with interpretation
+ - Engineer-of-record certification letter
+```
+
+# Quality Assurance {toc}
+
+## Installer Qualifications {toc}
+
+### The ground improvement contractor shall be a specialty firm regularly engaged in the installation of the specified method, with documented experience on at least three projects of comparable scope, soil conditions, and element depth completed within the preceding five years.
+
+### The ground improvement design shall be performed by, or under the responsible charge of, a professional geotechnical engineer licensed in the project jurisdiction.
+
+### Where a proprietary aggregate pier, soil mixing, or jet grout system is used, the installing crew shall be trained and licensed by the system developer.
+
+## Geotechnical Investigation {toc}
+
+### A pre-construction geotechnical investigation conducted in accordance with IBC Section 1803 shall provide subsurface data sufficient to support the ground improvement design, including borings or cone penetration tests to a depth below the deepest element and laboratory classification and strength testing of the affected strata.
+
+### The geotechnical investigation underpinning the ground improvement design must be specific to the site and adequate in depth and density; existing borings that are too sparse or too shallow are not acceptable as the sole basis of design, because element type, depth, and spacing all derive from the site soil profile. {note}
+
+### Ground improvement under IBC Section 1808 is an alternative foundation system with no prescriptive code path: there is no table to size elements from, so a project-specific geotechnical report and engineer approval are mandatory rather than optional. {note}
+
+### The contractor shall not reuse an element layout from another project without site-specific geotechnical justification.
+
+## Engineer Coordination {toc}
+
+### The allowable bearing capacity assumed by the ground improvement design shall match the bearing pressure used in the shallow foundation design under [[sync/shallow-foundations]], confirmed in writing before installation.
+
+### A mismatch between the bearing pressure stated in the geotechnical report and the bearing pressure shown on the structural drawings is a persistent source of requests for information and rework; reconciling the two values before installation closes that gap. {note}
+
+### Value engineering that changes element type, depth, spacing, or area replacement ratio shall be re-analyzed and accepted in writing by the geotechnical engineer of record before implementation.
+
+### Reducing the element grid or depth as a deductive alternate without re-analysis by the geotechnical engineer of record voids the performance basis of the design and typically voids any settlement or bearing warranty; cost savings that bypass the engineer are not savings. {note}
+
+# Performance Requirements {toc}
+
+## Performance Basis {toc}
+
+### This standard is written as a performance specification: the engineer states the required end result (allowable bearing capacity, settlement limits, and liquefaction-resistance target where applicable) and the specialty contractor designs the method, layout, and element details to achieve it. {note}
+
+### Aggregate pier and soil mixing work is inherently specialty-contractor-driven, so a performance specification that fixes the target and leaves the means to the design-build contractor is generally more defensible and easier to administer than a rigid procedural specification that dictates equipment and sequence. {note}
+
+### A purely prescriptive specification that locks the method and grid is appropriate only for rammed aggregate piers on well-characterized sites where the engineer has performed the composite design; for stone columns, soil mixing, and jet grouting the design should remain with the specialty contractor. {note}
+
+### The improved ground shall achieve the specified allowable bearing capacity for the supported element type.
+
+```datasheet
+label: Allowable bearing capacity, improved composite ground
+type: range
+unit: psf
+min: 2000
+max: 8000
+step: 500
+setpoints:
+ - 2000
+ - 3000
+ - 4000
+ - 6000
+ - 8000
+default: 3000
+```
+
+### The supported foundation type shall be identified so that the bearing target and element layout can be coordinated with the structural design.
+
+```datasheet
+label: Supported foundation / structure type
+type: radio
+options:
+ - Slab-on-grade
+ - Spread footings
+ - Combined footings / mat
+ - Embankment / fill support
+ - Pavement subgrade
+default: Slab-on-grade
+```
+
+## Settlement Criteria {toc}
+
+### Settlement of the improved ground under design service loads shall not exceed the specified total and differential settlement limits.
+
+### Settlement limits are commonly expressed two ways: a total settlement cap (often about 1 inch for slabs and 0.5 to 1 inch for spread footings) and a differential settlement ratio between adjacent supports (commonly L/480 to L/240 for structural frames), with the structural engineer setting the governing values for the specific frame. {note}
+
+```datasheet
+label: Maximum total settlement under design load
+type: range
+unit: in
+min: 0.5
+max: 2.0
+step: 0.25
+setpoints:
+ - 0.5
+ - 0.75
+ - 1.0
+ - 1.5
+default: 1.0
+```
+
+```datasheet
+label: Maximum differential settlement ratio between supports
+type: select
+options:
+ - L/480
+ - L/360
+ - L/240
+default: L/480
+```
+
+### Post-improvement settlement under design load shall not exceed the fraction of the unimproved settlement assumed in the design.
+
+### Granular reinforcement typically reduces post-improvement settlement to about 30 to 60 percent of the unimproved settlement; the design report shall state the settlement reduction the layout is intended to achieve so that it can be verified against load test results. {note}
+
+## Liquefaction Resistance {toc}
+
+### Where the design intent includes mitigation of liquefiable soils, the improved ground shall achieve the specified post-treatment density or penetration resistance, and that resistance shall be verified by post-treatment testing rather than assumed from the pre-treatment design.
+
+### Specifying aggregate piers in liquefiable granular soils on the strength of the pre-treatment design alone is a recognized pitfall: densification and drainage performance vary with as-installed conditions, so post-treatment CPT or SPT verification is required to confirm the improvement actually occurred. {note}
+
+```datasheet
+label: Liquefaction mitigation required
+type: radio
+options:
+ - Not required
+ - Required, verified by post-treatment SPT
+ - Required, verified by post-treatment CPT
+default: Not required
+```
+
+# Method Selection {toc}
+
+## The installation method shall be selected to suit the native soil type, groundwater depth, headroom and access constraints, and target performance, and shall be documented in the ground improvement design report. {note}
+
+### Method selection is the first and most consequential decision: cohesive versus granular soils, the depth to groundwater, overhead and lateral access limits, and the governing performance target (bearing, settlement, or liquefaction) each push toward a different family of methods, and the wrong choice cannot be corrected by adjusting spacing. {note}
+
+```datasheet
+label: Ground improvement method
+type: radio
+options:
+ - Rammed aggregate piers (drill-and-ram)
+ - Rammed aggregate piers (displacement)
+ - Vibro stone columns / vibro replacement
+ - Vibro compaction (granular soils, no aggregate)
+ - Deep soil mixing, wet method
+ - Deep soil mixing, dry method
+ - Mass soil mixing
+ - Jet grouting, single-fluid
+ - Jet grouting, triple-fluid
+default: Rammed aggregate piers (drill-and-ram)
+```
+
+## Granular Reinforcement Methods {toc}
+
+### Rammed aggregate piers are built by drilling or displacing a cavity and ramming successive lifts of crushed stone with a beveled tamper that both compacts the aggregate and prestresses and densifies the surrounding soil; they suit cohesive and mixed soils and are the method most commonly specified by owners with a prescriptive specification. {note}
+
+### Displacement (no-spoil) rammed aggregate piers form the cavity by pushing soil aside rather than augering it out, which suits loose granular soils below the water table where an open hole would collapse. {note}
+
+### Vibro stone columns (vibro replacement) use a vibrating probe to form a stone column in soft cohesive soils below the water table, by either a wet (jetted) or dry (bottom-feed) process; they reach greater depths than rammed piers and provide both reinforcement and drainage. {note}
+
+### Vibro compaction densifies clean loose granular soils with a vibrating probe and does not add aggregate or form a column; it is a densification method, not a reinforcement method, and is ineffective in cohesive soils. {note}
+
+### Vibro stone columns shall not be specified in stiff cohesive soils with undrained shear strength above approximately 50 kPa (1,000 psf) without a constructability review by the specialty contractor, because dense or stiff soil may resist the lateral expansion the column needs to mobilize its capacity. {note}
+
+## Cementitious Stabilization Methods {toc}
+
+### Wet-method deep soil mixing blends a cement slurry into the soil with single- or multi-axis augers to form overlapping columns or panels of hardened soil-cement; it suits a wide range of soils and reaches the greatest depths of the covered methods. {note}
+
+### Dry-method deep soil mixing injects dry cement or lime powder into the soil through a rotating auger and relies on the soil's own water for hydration; it suits high-water-content cohesive soils where adding slurry water is undesirable. {note}
+
+### Mass soil mixing overlaps soil-mix columns in a grid or block pattern to treat a continuous volume of soil, used for widespread settlement control beneath structures or for environmental containment. {note}
+
+### Single-fluid jet grouting injects high-pressure grout through a rotating monitor to erode and mix the soil into a column; it produces smaller-diameter columns and is precise in restricted-access work and adjacent to existing structures. {note}
+
+### Triple-fluid jet grouting pre-cuts the soil with water shrouded by air before injecting grout, producing the largest column diameters where wide treatment from a single drill location is required. {note}
+
+### Cementitious methods shall not be used on a contaminated site until the spoil and grout-return handling has been coordinated with abatement scope under [[sync/hazardous-material-abatement]] and any required environmental permitting is in place.
+
+# Elements and Materials {toc}
+
+## Aggregate Pier and Stone Column Elements {toc}
+
+### Element diameter, design depth, grid spacing, and area replacement ratio shall be as shown on the accepted treatment layout for each foundation and slab area.
+
+### Element diameter is commonly 18 inches for rammed aggregate piers (the most frequent size), increasing to 24 to 30 inches for heavier loads and 30 to 48 inches for vibro stone columns; the design depth extends to a competent stratum or refusal and at least 1.5 times the footing width below bearing elevation. {note}
+
+```datasheet
+label: Aggregate pier / stone column diameter
+type: select
+unit: in
+options:
+ - 18
+ - 24
+ - 30
+ - 36
+ - 48
+default: 18
+```
+
+```datasheet
+label: Element design depth
+type: range
+unit: ft
+min: 8
+max: 60
+step: 1
+default: 20
+drawing_ref: "geotechnical profile / boring logs"
+```
+
+```datasheet
+label: Element grid spacing (on center)
+type: range
+unit: ft
+min: 4
+max: 12
+step: 0.5
+default: 6
+drawing_ref: "treatment layout plan"
+```
+
+### The area replacement ratio (ratio of element cross-sectional area to tributary area) shall be as required by the design to achieve the specified bearing and settlement performance.
+
+### Area replacement ratios commonly run 10 to 35 percent, with a design optimum often near 20 to 25 percent for soft clay sites; the ratio is the principal lever the designer uses to trade element count against performance. {note}
+
+```datasheet
+label: Area replacement ratio (As/A)
+type: range
+unit: '%'
+min: 10
+max: 35
+step: 5
+default: 25
+```
+
+### Aggregate for piers and stone columns shall be crushed stone graded in accordance with ASTM D6913/D6913M, of nominal 0.75 to 1.5 inch size.
+
+### Aggregate shall contain no more than 5 percent passing the No. 200 sieve.
+
+### Fines content must be controlled because the column's drainage function (especially for liquefaction mitigation and for stone columns below the water table) depends on the aggregate staying free-draining; excess fines clog the column and defeat the drainage path. {note}
+
+### Aggregate shall have a Los Angeles abrasion loss of no more than 50 percent when tested in accordance with ASTM C131/C131M.
+
+```datasheet
+label: Aggregate nominal size
+type: select
+unit: in
+options:
+ - 0.75
+ - '1.0'
+ - 1.25
+ - 1.5
+default: '1.0'
+```
+
+```datasheet
+label: Maximum aggregate fines (passing No. 200 sieve)
+type: range
+unit: '%'
+min: 3
+max: 5
+step: 1
+default: 5
+```
+
+## Deep Soil Mixing and Jet Grout Elements {toc}
+
+### Soil-mix and jet grout column diameter, design depth, and grid or panel layout shall be as shown on the accepted treatment layout.
+
+### Wet-method single-axis soil-mix columns are most commonly 24 to 36 inches in diameter; multi-axis soil-mix walls run 36 to 60 inches; single-fluid jet grout columns run 18 to 36 inches and triple-fluid jet grout columns run 48 to 78 inches. {note}
+
+```datasheet
+label: Soil-mix / jet grout column diameter
+type: range
+unit: in
+min: 18
+max: 78
+step: 6
+setpoints:
+ - 24
+ - 36
+ - 48
+ - 60
+ - 78
+default: 30
+```
+
+### The binder type and dosage shall be selected for the in-situ soil chemistry and the target unconfined compressive strength, and shall be confirmed by trial-mix or bench-scale testing before production.
+
+### The binder is commonly Portland cement (Type I/II, or Type III where high early strength is needed), sometimes blended with slag or lime; in-situ soil chemistry governs the choice because organics, sulfates, or low pH can inhibit cement hydration and, if unaddressed, cause complete column failure, which is why trial-mix testing is mandatory rather than advisory. {note}
+
+```datasheet
+label: Binder type
+type: radio
+options:
+ - Portland cement Type I/II
+ - Portland cement Type III (high early strength)
+ - Cement-slag blend
+ - Cement-lime blend
+ - Lime (dry method)
+default: Portland cement Type I/II
+```
+
+```datasheet
+label: Binder content (cement) per cubic meter of treated soil
+type: range
+unit: kg/m³
+min: 150
+max: 350
+step: 25
+default: 225
+```
+
+```datasheet
+label: Water-cement ratio (wet method)
+type: range
+unit: ratio
+min: 0.8
+max: 1.5
+step: 0.1
+default: 1.0
+```
+
+### Soil-mix and jet grout columns shall attain the specified unconfined compressive strength at the specified age when tested in accordance with ASTM D4832.
+
+### Target unconfined compressive strength is commonly 50 to 150 psi (345 to 1,034 kPa) for settlement control in soft clay and 100 to 300 psi (690 to 2,069 kPa) for structural load transfer, with environmental containment work often requiring at least 50 psi; the design report shall state the governing target and age. {note}
+
+```datasheet
+label: Target unconfined compressive strength (UCS) at 28 days
+type: range
+unit: psi
+min: 50
+max: 300
+step: 25
+setpoints:
+ - 50
+ - 100
+ - 150
+ - 200
+ - 300
+default: 100
+```
+
+## Load Transfer Platform {toc}
+
+### A compacted granular load transfer platform shall be placed over the improved zone where required by the design to redistribute structure loads across the element grid and the intervening soil.
+
+### Omitting the load transfer platform is a common pitfall: the granular working mat (often with geogrid reinforcement) is what spreads load from the structure across the stiff elements and the softer soil between them, and without it most of the composite-system benefit is lost. {note}
+
+```datasheet
+label: Load transfer platform thickness
+type: range
+unit: in
+min: 12
+max: 24
+step: 3
+default: 18
+```
+
+```datasheet
+label: Geogrid reinforcement in load transfer platform
+type: radio
+options:
+ - Not required
+ - Biaxial geogrid, 40 kN/m minimum tensile strength
+ - Biaxial geogrid, design strength per layout
+default: Not required
+```
+
+# Installation {toc}
+
+## General {toc}
+
+### Installation shall follow the accepted ground improvement design, treatment layout, and quality control plan.
+
+### A preconstruction survey of adjacent structures, slabs, and utilities within the zone of influence shall be performed and documented before installation begins.
+
+### Aggregate pier, soil mixing, and jet grout installation can cause ground heave, vibration, and lateral soil displacement; a documented preconstruction survey of adjacent foundations and buried utilities establishes the baseline needed to detect and attribute any damage. {note}
+
+### The contractor shall stop ground improvement work and notify the engineer when hazardous soil or groundwater is encountered, and shall not resume until abatement clearance is obtained under [[sync/hazardous-material-abatement]].
+
+## Aggregate Pier and Stone Column Installation {toc}
+
+### Each element shall be installed to the design depth or to refusal on a competent stratum, whichever is reached first, and the as-installed depth shall be recorded.
+
+### Aggregate shall be placed and compacted in controlled lifts using the tamper or vibrator energy specified by the system, and the compaction effort or energy shall be recorded for each element.
+
+### The volume of aggregate placed shall be recorded as cubic feet per linear foot for every element.
+
+### Aggregate volume tracking is the only field record that proves an element was fully built; without volume-per-foot logs there is no objective basis to reject an under-installed pier, and quality control collapses to a top-of-pier elevation check that cannot detect a hollow or under-filled column. {note}
+
+### An element whose recorded aggregate volume deviates from the design volume by more than 15 percent shall be re-evaluated by the engineer before acceptance.
+
+### For elements installed below the water table, the bottom-bulb densification shall achieve at least the minimum dynamic penetration acceptance specified by the design (commonly 15 blows per 45 mm per UFGS 31 62 50).
+
+```datasheet
+label: Aggregate volume deviation triggering re-evaluation
+type: range
+unit: '%'
+min: 10
+max: 20
+step: 5
+default: 15
+```
+
+## Soil Mixing and Jet Grout Installation {toc}
+
+### Each soil-mix or jet grout column shall be installed at the binder dosage, injection pressure, withdrawal rate, and rotation specified by the accepted design, and these parameters shall be recorded for every column.
+
+### Soil-cement spoil and grout returns shall be contained, characterized, and disposed of in accordance with the accepted spoil management plan.
+
+### Wet soil mixing and jet grouting generate significant volumes of soil-cement spoil and grout return; disposal must be planned and permitted before mobilization, because on contaminated sites the returns may be a regulated waste and an unplanned spoil stream can halt the work. {note}
+
+### Overlap between adjacent columns in walls, grids, and mass-mix blocks shall be maintained within the tolerance required by the design to ensure continuity of the treated mass.
+
+## Curing and Loading Sequence {toc}
+
+### A minimum waiting period shall elapse between element installation and footing excavation or load application, as required for the method and binder.
+
+### Premature loading before strength gain is a recurring field problem; aggregate piers can typically accept footing construction within about 24 hours, while soil-mix and jet grout columns require 7 to 28 days of curing depending on the binder and target strength before load is applied. {note}
+
+```datasheet
+label: Minimum waiting period before load application
+type: select
+options:
+ - 24 hours (aggregate piers)
+ - 7 days (soil mixing / jet grout, early strength)
+ - 14 days (soil mixing / jet grout)
+ - 28 days (soil mixing / jet grout, full strength)
+default: 24 hours (aggregate piers)
+```
+
+# Testing and Verification {toc}
+
+## Load Testing {toc}
+
+### A load test program shall be performed to confirm the load-deformation behavior of representative elements against the design assumptions.
+
+### The program distinguishes proof tests (loading representative production elements to a multiple of design load to confirm acceptable behavior) from verification tests (loading a sacrificial or pre-production element to a higher multiple to validate the design model); both follow ASTM D1143/D1143M loading and measurement protocols adapted to single elements. {note}
+
+### Proof tests shall load the element to between 150 and 200 percent of design load.
+
+### Verification tests shall load the element to between 200 and 300 percent of design load.
+
+### The number and location of proof and verification tests shall be as specified, with a minimum of one verification test per project and proof tests distributed across the treated area.
+
+```datasheet
+label: Number of proof tests
+type: range
+unit: tests
+min: 1
+max: 6
+step: 1
+default: 2
+```
+
+```datasheet
+label: Number of verification tests
+type: range
+unit: tests
+min: 1
+max: 3
+step: 1
+default: 1
+```
+
+```datasheet
+label: Proof test load (percent of design load)
+type: range
+unit: '%'
+min: 150
+max: 200
+step: 25
+default: 150
+```
+
+```datasheet
+label: Verification test load (percent of design load)
+type: range
+unit: '%'
+min: 200
+max: 300
+step: 50
+default: 200
+```
+
+### A load test element shall not be loaded before the minimum waiting period for the method and binder has elapsed.
+
+## Core and In-Situ Verification {toc}
+
+### Soil-mix and jet grout columns shall be verified by coring and unconfined compressive strength testing of the recovered soil-cement in accordance with ASTM D4832, at the frequency specified in the quality control plan.
+
+### Where low or variable core strengths are encountered, the engineer may interpret in-place strength using methods consistent with ACI 228.1R before accepting or rejecting affected columns. {note}
+
+### Where the design relies on densification or strength gain in the native soil, pre- and post-improvement in-situ testing shall document the change, using SPT (ASTM D1586/D1586M) for granular soils and field vane shear (ASTM D2573/D2573M) for cohesive soils.
+
+### For large soil-mix programs, the engineer may specify seismic refraction (ASTM D5777) as a supplementary geophysical check of treatment continuity. {note}
+
+### High-strain dynamic testing in accordance with ASTM D4945 may be specified as a supplementary quality check for deep soil-mix columns.
+
+```datasheet
+label: Core UCS testing frequency (cementitious methods)
+type: select
+options:
+ - 1 core per 1,000 cubic yards treated
+ - 1 core per 50 columns
+ - 1 core per 25 columns
+default: 1 core per 50 columns
+```
+
+```datasheet
+label: Post-improvement in-situ verification
+type: radio
+options:
+ - Not required
+ - Post-improvement SPT (granular soils)
+ - Post-improvement CPT (granular soils)
+ - Post-improvement field vane shear (cohesive soils)
+default: Not required
+```
+
+## Acceptance {toc}
+
+### Ground improvement shall be accepted only after load test results, core or in-situ verification results, and installation records have been reviewed by the geotechnical engineer of record against the specified acceptance criteria.
+
+### Elements that fail to meet the acceptance criteria shall be supplemented, replaced, or otherwise remediated by means designed and accepted by the geotechnical engineer of record at no additional cost to the owner.
+
+# Coordination {toc}
+
+## Ground improvement bearing capacity and settlement assumptions shall be coordinated with the shallow foundation design under [[sync/shallow-foundations]] and confirmed before installation. {note}
+
+## Mass earthwork, site grading to working-platform elevation, and engineered fill above the improved zone are specified under [[sync/earthwork]] and shall be coordinated so the working platform is in place before installation and the load transfer platform is built on a prepared subgrade. {note}
+
+## Performance monitoring of the improved ground during and after construction (settlement plates, inclinometers, piezometers) is specified under [[sync/geotechnical-instrumentation-and-monitoring]]; this standard's testing requirements cover construction verification, not long-term monitoring. {note}
+
+## Where the project also includes thin-layer chemical or mechanical subgrade stabilization for pavement, that work is specified under [[sync/soil-stabilization]] and is distinct from the deep ground improvement covered here. {note}
+
+## Sequencing with hazardous material abatement under [[sync/hazardous-material-abatement]] shall be documented where soil mixing or jet grouting is performed on a contaminated site, so that spoil and grout-return handling, permitting, and clearance are resolved before and during installation. {note}
+
+# Warranty {toc}
+
+## The specialty ground improvement contractor shall warrant that the installed ground improvement was designed and built to achieve the specified bearing capacity and settlement performance, for the period required by the contract.
+
+### The performance warranty is predicated on the design as accepted; any field change to element type, depth, spacing, or replacement ratio that was not re-analyzed and accepted in writing by the geotechnical engineer of record voids the warranty for the affected area. {note}
+
+## The warranty shall remain in effect notwithstanding the owner's acceptance of load test and verification results.