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SynC · Editorial revision

Cold-Formed Metal Framing

Revision8
EditedAug 29, 2026
StatusCurrent
Contents

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Current revision. This is editorial revision 8, the current text of this standard. Read it on the standard's page.

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1 Scope

1.1 Work Covered by This Standard

NOTE This standard governs the furnishing, delegated design, fabrication, delivery, erection, protection, and inspection of structural cold-formed steel framing. (1.1.1)
NOTE Cold-formed steel framing is roll-formed at ambient temperature from metallic-coated sheet steel into C-shaped studs and joists, U-shaped tracks, channels, hat sections, angles, and proprietary built-up profiles. A member is defined by its web depth, flange width, return lip, base steel thickness, and yield strength rather than by a rolled-shape catalog. (1.1.2)
NOTE A member is structural when its failure would compromise the strength, stability, or serviceability of the building or of the cladding it supports. That test, and not the wall's position in the building, is what places framing inside this standard. (1.1.3)
NOTE An exterior wall stud that carries no gravity load is still structural, because it resists the design wind pressure and delivers it to the primary structure, and because the cladding it backs up depends on its stiffness. (1.1.4)
1.1.5 Structural cold-formed steel framing shall be designed under AISI S100 and detailed under AISI S240.
1.1.6 Structural cold-formed steel framing that participates in a seismic force-resisting system shall additionally be designed and detailed under AISI S400.
1.1.7 Framing member locations, extents, elevations, and wall type assignments are the framing plans and wall type schedule.
NOTE This standard governs how the framing is specified, procured, connected, and erected, and the contract documents define what is built and where. (1.1.8)

1.2 Framing Assemblies in Scope

1.2.1 The cold-formed steel framing assemblies included in the work shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Cold-Formed Steel Framing Assemblies in Scopecheckbox
☐ Load-bearing exterior wall framing
☐ Load-bearing interior wall framing
☐ Exterior non-load-bearing wind-bearing wall framing
☐ Cold-formed steel floor joist framing
☐ Cold-formed steel roof rafter framing
☐ Cold-formed steel trusses
☐ Cold-formed steel shear walls and braced walls
☐ Parapet framing
☐ Canopy and overhang framing
☐ Structural soffit and ceiling framing carrying calculated load
NOTE Several articles of this standard apply only to assemblies selected in this field, and each such article states its own trigger. (1.2.2)
1.2.3 The framing assemblies selected shall be consistent with the framing shown in the contract documents.

1.3 Work Not Covered by This Standard

NOTE This standard does not cover: (1.3.1)
  • Interior non-structural framing supporting only gypsum board and its finishes, which is governed by Gypsum Board AssembliesGypsum Board AssembliesResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/gypsum-board-assemblies and, at shaft and stairwell enclosures, by Gypsum Shaft Wall AssembliesGypsum Shaft Wall AssembliesResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/gypsum-shaft-wall-assemblies
  • The primary structure to which the cold-formed framing attaches, whether hot-rolled steel under Structural Steel FramingStructural Steel FramingResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/structural-steel-framing, concrete under Cast In Place ConcreteCast-in-Place ConcreteResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/cast-in-place-concrete, or masonry under Unit MasonryUnit MasonryResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/unit-masonry
  • Steel floor and roof deck, its attachment, and diaphragm design, which are governed by Steel DeckSteel DeckResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/steel-deck
  • Sheathing, weather-resistive barriers, and air barriers applied over the framing, which are governed by Wood SheathingWood Structural Panel SheathingResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/wood-sheathing and Air BarriersAir BarriersResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/air-barriers
  • Cavity and continuous insulation within or outside the framed assembly, which is governed by Building Thermal InsulationBuilding Thermal InsulationResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/building-thermal-insulation
  • Masonry veneer, its anchors, and the anchor spacing relative to the studs, which are governed by Masonry Anchorage And VeneerMasonry Anchorage and VeneerResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/masonry-anchorage-and-veneer
  • Applied fireproofing on cold-formed members, which is governed by FireproofingApplied FireproofingResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/fireproofing
  • Firestopping of head-of-wall joints and penetrations, which is governed by FirestoppingFirestoppingResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/firestopping
  • Shop and field coating materials and their application, which are governed by Shop Painting And GalvanizingShop Painting and Galvanizing of SteelResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/shop-painting-and-galvanizing

2 Delegated Design and Division of Responsibility

2.1 Extent of Delegated Design

NOTE Cold-formed steel framing is commonly engineered in two places at once: the Engineer of Record establishes the loads, the framing geometry, and the interface with the primary structure, and a specialty engineer retained by the framing supplier or installer designs the members and connections that deliver them. (2.1.1)
NOTE Which portions are delegated is a project decision rather than a property of the product, and both fully-detailed and fully-delegated projects are built routinely. What produces disputes is not the choice but leaving the boundary unstated. (2.1.2)
2.1.3 The portions of the cold-formed steel framing design that are delegated to a specialty engineer shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Portions of the Framing Design Delegated to a Specialty Engineercheckbox
☐ No portion delegated, because all members and connections are detailed in the contract documents
☐ Exterior non-load-bearing wind-bearing wall framing
☐ Load-bearing wall framing
☐ Floor joist framing
☐ Roof rafter framing
☐ Truss assemblies
☐ Shear walls and braced walls
☐ Bridging and bracing
☐ Connections of the framing to the primary structure
☐ Opening framing including jambs, headers, and sills
2.1.4 Where a portion of the design is delegated, the specialty engineer shall be a professional engineer licensed in the jurisdiction of the project.
2.1.5 Where a portion of the design is delegated, the specialty engineer shall seal the shop drawings and the calculations covering that portion.
NOTE The Engineer of Record's review of a delegated design confirms conformance with the loads, deflection criteria, and interface conditions stated in the contract documents, and it does not transfer the detailed design responsibility to the Engineer of Record. (2.1.6)
2.1.7 The Contractor shall not begin fabrication of any delegated portion until the submittals covering it have been reviewed and returned.

2.2 Information the Contract Documents Must State

NOTE A delegated design is only as complete as the loads and criteria it is given. Framing designed against an incomplete load statement is not conservative in any predictable direction, because the missing load may control a member the specialty engineer never checked. (2.2.1)
2.2.2 Gravity loads, wind pressures, and seismic forces acting on the cold-formed steel framing are the structural general notes.
2.2.3 Concentrated and suspended loads carried by the framing, and their points of application, are the framing plans.
2.2.4 Axial forces induced in framing acting as a diaphragm chord, collector, or drag strut are the lateral force resisting system plans.
2.2.5 Interstory drift that the framing is required to accommodate is the structural general notes.
2.2.6 The calculated deflection of the primary structure above each non-load-bearing wall is the framing plans.
2.2.7 The Engineer of Record shall state the loads and criteria for every portion of the framing that is delegated, before the framing is released for fabrication.
2.2.8 The specialty engineer shall not be assigned responsibility for a load or an interface condition that the contract documents do not state.

2.3 Responsibility for Interfaces With Adjacent Work

NOTE Cold-formed steel framing touches more adjacent scopes than almost any other structural product, and most of the coordination failures in framing work occur at those boundaries rather than within the framing itself. (2.3.1)
2.3.2 Attachment of gypsum board and its finishes to the framing shall comply with Gypsum Board AssembliesGypsum Board AssembliesResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/gypsum-board-assemblies.
2.3.3 Anchor rods, embed plates, and cast-in connection hardware in concrete shall comply with Structural Steel Anchor BoltsAnchor Rods and Embedded SteelResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/structural-steel-anchor-bolts.
2.3.4 Clip angles, plates, and welded attachments furnished as part of the hot-rolled structural steel package shall comply with Structural Steel FramingStructural Steel FramingResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/structural-steel-framing.
2.3.5 Masonry veneer anchors engaging the studs shall comply with Masonry Anchorage And VeneerMasonry Anchorage and VeneerResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/masonry-anchorage-and-veneer.
2.3.6 Door and window frame anchorage to jamb framing shall be coordinated with Doors Frames And HardwareDoors, Frames, and HardwareResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/doors-frames-and-hardware.
2.3.7 The administrative envelope for submittals and the coordination process between supplier, installer, and Contractor is established in Submittal And Quality ProceduresSubmittal and Quality ProceduresResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/submittal-and-quality-procedures.

3 Referenced Standards

3.1 Materials, fabrication, and installation shall comply with the latest adopted edition of each of the following unless a specific edition is cited.
3.2 Where referenced standards conflict, the more stringent requirement shall govern unless the Engineer of Record directs otherwise in writing.
Standard Title
AISI S100 North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members
AISI S202 Code of Standard Practice for Cold-Formed Steel Structural Framing
AISI S220 North American Standard for Cold-Formed Steel Framing, Nonstructural Members
AISI S230 Standard for Cold-Formed Steel Framing, Prescriptive Method for One- and Two-Family Dwellings
AISI S240 North American Standard for Cold-Formed Steel Structural Framing
AISI S250 North American Standard for Thermal Transmittance of Building Envelopes with Cold-Formed Steel Framing
AISI S400 North American Standard for Seismic Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Systems
ASTM A1003/A1003M Steel Sheet, Carbon, Metallic- and Nonmetallic-Coated for Cold-Formed Framing Members
ASTM A653/A653M Steel Sheet, Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) or Zinc-Iron Alloy-Coated (Galvannealed) by the Hot-Dip Process
ASTM A792/A792M Steel Sheet, 55 % Aluminum-Zinc Alloy-Coated by the Hot-Dip Process
ASTM A875/A875M Steel Sheet, Zinc-5 % Aluminum Alloy-Coated by the Hot-Dip Process
ASTM A1046/A1046M Steel Sheet, Zinc-Aluminum-Magnesium Alloy-Coated by the Hot-Dip Process
ASTM A153/A153M Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel Hardware
ASTM A780/A780M Repair of Damaged and Uncoated Areas of Hot-Dip Galvanized Coatings
ASTM B117 Operating Salt Spray (Fog) Apparatus
ASTM C645 Nonstructural Steel Framing Members
ASTM C955 Load-Bearing (Transverse and Axial) Steel Studs, Runners (Tracks), and Bracing or Bridging for Screw Application of Gypsum Panel Products and Metal Plaster Bases
ASTM C1007 Installation of Load Bearing (Transverse and Axial) Steel Studs and Related Accessories
ASTM C1513 Steel Tapping Screws for Cold-Formed Steel Framing Connections
ASTM E119 Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials
ASTM E2126 Cyclic (Reversed) Load Test for Shear Resistance of Vertical Elements of the Lateral Force Resisting Systems for Buildings
AWS D1.1/D1.1M Structural Welding Code, Steel
AWS D1.3/D1.3M Structural Welding Code, Sheet Steel
ASCE/SEI 7 Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures
IBC International Building Code (Chapter 16, Structural Design; Chapter 17, Special Inspections and Tests; Chapter 22, Steel)
SFIA Technical Guide for Cold-Formed Steel Framing Products Member designations, section properties, and limiting height and span tables
BIA Technical Note 28B Brick Veneer, Cold-Formed Steel Framed Walls
GA-600 Fire Resistance and Sound Control Design Manual
UL Fire Resistance Directory Listed fire-resistance-rated wall, floor/ceiling, roof/ceiling, and head-of-wall joint systems
NOTE AISI S240 is the umbrella framing standard and adopts AISI S100 for member-level design, so a project that invokes S240 has invoked S100 with it. (3.3)
NOTE The provisions formerly published as separate AISI standards for wall systems, floor and roof systems, lateral systems, trusses, and headers were consolidated into AISI S240, which is why a current specification cites one framing standard where older ones cited several. (3.4)

4 Submittals

4.1 Action Submittals

4.1.1 The Contractor shall submit the following to the Engineer of Record before cold-formed steel framing is released for fabrication:
  • Product data for each stud, track, joist, channel, angle, clip connector, deflection track, bridging component, screw, anchor, and accessory to be furnished, giving the member designation, base steel thickness in mils, minimum yield strength, metallic coating designation, and published section properties
  • Shop drawings showing every member designation and mark, member spacing, track conditions at the head and base of wall, bridging type and location, opening framing, connections to the primary structure, screw types and patterns, and weld symbols and sizes where welding is used
  • Calculations for each delegated portion, sealed by the specialty engineer, demonstrating compliance with AISI S100 and AISI S240 for the stated loads and deflection criteria
  • Evaluation reports for proprietary clip connectors, deflection tracks, bridging systems, and fasteners whose capacity is established by testing rather than by calculation
  • Welding procedure specifications covering shop and field welds on cold-formed members
  • Fire-resistance-rated assembly designations proposed for each rated wall, floor, or roof condition, together with the head-of-wall joint systems that complete them
Action Submittals Requiredcheckbox
☑ Product data for members, connectors, and fasteners
☑ Shop drawings for the framing
☑ Sealed calculations for each delegated portion
☑ Evaluation reports for proprietary connectors and fasteners
☐ Welding procedure specifications
☐ Fire-resistance-rated assembly designations
4.1.2 Product data shall identify the member designation in the four-part form of the SFIA and SSMA system so that a distributor can fill the order without interpretation.
4.1.3 Shop drawings shall be prepared by the framing supplier's engineer for delegated portions and by the fabricator or installer for portions detailed in the contract documents.
4.1.4 The Contractor shall allow fifteen working days for each review cycle, measured from receipt of a complete submittal.
4.1.5 Installation of a framing assembly shall not begin until the submittals covering that assembly have been reviewed and returned.
4.1.6 The Contractor shall not substitute a member designation, connector, or fastener for the one shown on the reviewed shop drawings without the Engineer of Record's written approval.
NOTE A substitution that appears equivalent by thickness alone frequently is not, because capacity in a cold-formed member follows web depth, flange width, lip geometry, and yield strength together rather than thickness by itself. (4.1.7)

4.2 Informational Submittals

4.2.1 The Contractor shall submit the following before or with the first delivery of framing:
  • Certified mill test reports for the sheet steel used in structural members, confirming the ASTM A1003 designation, the minimum yield strength, and the metallic coating designation
  • Welder qualification records under AWS D1.3 for the processes, positions, and sheet thicknesses to be welded
  • Documentation of the installer's experience meeting the qualification stated in this standard
  • Manufacturer test data supporting the corrosion protection of fasteners where a coating qualified by salt-spray testing is furnished
Informational Submittals Requiredcheckbox
☑ Certified mill test reports for structural member steel
☐ Welder qualification records under AWS D1.3
☑ Installer experience documentation
☐ Fastener corrosion test data
4.2.2 Certified mill test reports shall be traceable to the heat from which the sheet was produced.
NOTE Where welding is not used in the work, welder qualification records are not required. (4.2.3)

4.3 Closeout Submittals

4.3.1 At substantial completion the Contractor shall submit the following:
  • As-built shop drawings recording every field modification, substitution, and approved deviation
  • Field inspection reports covering visual inspection of the framing and, where welding was performed, welding inspection reports
  • Documentation of coating repair, identifying the material used and the areas treated
  • Certificates of compliance from the framing supplier and from the installer
Closeout Submittals Requiredcheckbox
☑ As-built shop drawings
☑ Field inspection reports
☐ Coating repair documentation
☑ Certificates of compliance from the supplier and the installer

5 Quality Assurance

5.1 Installer Qualification

NOTE Structural cold-formed steel framing and interior partition framing are installed with the same hand tools and by overlapping trades, which is why experience alone is not a reliable proxy and the qualification is stated in years of structural work specifically. (5.1.1)
5.1.2 The installer shall have at least the experience indicated in the datasheet installing structural cold-formed steel framing.
Minimum Installer Experience With Structural Cold-Formed Steel Framingrange
years
123510
5.1.3 Where the parties disagree whether an installer's experience is comparable in scope to the work of this project, the Engineer of Record shall make the initial determination.
5.1.4 Where a proprietary panelized or truss system is furnished, the installer shall hold the system supplier's current certification for that system.

5.2 Welding Qualification

5.2.1 Requirements in this article apply where arc welding is selected in the datasheet field for the connection methods permitted.
NOTE AWS D1.3 governs arc welding of sheet steel 0.188 in. and less in nominal thickness, and it is a separate code from AWS D1.1 because burn-through rather than fusion is the governing risk at those thicknesses. (5.2.2)
5.2.3 Welds in cold-formed steel members shall be qualified and performed under AWS D1.3.
5.2.4 Welds joining a cold-formed member to a hot-rolled member shall be qualified under AWS D1.3 for the sheet side of the joint.
5.2.5 Welders shall be qualified for the processes, positions, and sheet thicknesses to be welded.
5.2.6 A welder qualified only under AWS D1.1 shall not perform welding on cold-formed steel members without qualifying under AWS D1.3.
5.2.7 A welder who has not performed production work in a qualified process within the preceding six months shall requalify before performing production welding.
5.2.8 Welding procedure qualification, filler metal selection, and the nondestructive examination program shall comply with Welding RequirementsWelding RequirementsResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/welding-requirements.

5.3 Special Inspection of Framing Work

5.3.1 The Statement of Special Inspections, the approval of the inspection agency, and the continuous-versus-periodic designations for the project are established under IBC Chapter 17 and Special Inspections And TestingSpecial Inspections and Structural TestingResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/special-inspections-and-testing.
5.3.2 Special inspection of cold-formed steel framing shall cover at least the items indicated in the datasheet.
Special Inspection Scope for Cold-Formed Steel Framingcheckbox
☑ Member designation and base steel thickness verified against the reviewed shop drawings
☑ Welded connections in structural members
☐ Screw connections in shear walls and diaphragms
☑ Bridging type, spacing, and end anchorage
☑ Anchorage of track to the primary structure
☐ Hold-down installation and anchorage at shear wall ends
☐ Seismic detailing of members in the seismic force-resisting system
☐ Head-of-wall movement joints left free to move as detailed
5.3.3 The inspection agency shall have no business, financial, or organizational relationship with the framing supplier or the installer.
5.3.4 Special inspection findings shall be reported in writing to the Engineer of Record, the Contractor, and the Owner.

5.4 Pre-Installation Conference

5.4.1 Before installation of any framing assembly in scope begins, the Contractor shall hold a pre-installation conference attended by the Engineer of Record, the framing installer, the specialty engineer for any delegated portion, the cladding installer, the gypsum board installer, and the firestopping installer.
5.4.2 The conference shall review the framing layout, the head-of-wall movement details, the opening framing, the bridging schedule, the clip and anchor selections, the cladding attachment details, and the sequence by which each rated assembly is completed.
NOTE Head-of-wall movement details and rated head-of-wall joint systems fail more often through a downstream trade filling the movement gap than through a framing error, which is why the trades that follow the framing attend this conference. (5.4.3)

6 Corrosion Protection

6.1 Service Environment

NOTE The corrosion demand on cold-formed steel framing is set by how much liquid water and chloride reach the steel and how long it stays there, rather than by whether the wall is nominally interior or exterior. (6.1.1)
NOTE Framing concealed in an exterior wall assembly sits in the condition that produces most reported corrosion, because a cavity that wets from an envelope leak dries slowly and is not inspected. (6.1.2)
6.1.3 Where framing is installed within one mile of a saltwater coastline, in an indoor swimming pool enclosure, or in a process environment carrying airborne chlorides, the Engineer of Record shall establish the corrosion protection for that framing in the contract documents.
6.1.4 The Contractor shall report any framing location that will remain permanently exposed to weather to the Engineer of Record before the framing for that location is ordered.

6.2 Metallic Coating of Framing Members

NOTE AISI S240 sets the minimum metallic coating for structural members at the CP60 coating performance designation, which is satisfied by G60 galvanized, A60 galvannealed, AZ50 aluminum-zinc alloy, and GF30 zinc-5 % aluminum alloy coatings. CP90 is the corresponding designation at the higher coating weight. (6.2.1)
NOTE Aluminum-zinc and zinc-aluminum-magnesium coatings corrode by a different mechanism than zinc, so equal coating weight does not mean equal service life in every environment, and the two families are compared by exposure data rather than by weight. (6.2.2)
6.2.3 The minimum metallic coating on structural framing members shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Minimum Metallic Coating on Structural Framing Membersselect
G60 zinc coating conforming to ASTM A653
G90 zinc coating conforming to ASTM A653
A60 zinc-iron alloy coating conforming to ASTM A653
AZ50 aluminum-zinc alloy coating conforming to ASTM A792
AZ55 aluminum-zinc alloy coating conforming to ASTM A792
GF30 zinc-aluminum alloy coating conforming to ASTM A875
Zinc-aluminum-magnesium alloy coating conforming to ASTM A1046
6.2.4 Members furnished with a coating other than the one selected shall not be installed without the Engineer of Record's written acceptance.
6.2.5 Where a coating outside the CP60 and CP90 designations is furnished, the supplier shall submit exposure or accelerated test data establishing its performance in the service environment of the framing.

6.3 Corrosion Protection of Fasteners and Connectors

NOTE A fastener carries the load of the connection through a cross-section far smaller than the members it joins, so the same rate of section loss reaches a fastener's capacity long before it reaches a stud's. (6.3.1)
NOTE Screws sold for interior drywall work carry a light plating that is not intended for a wall cavity, and corroded screws found in exterior assemblies are commonly that product installed where a coated or stainless fastener was required. (6.3.2)
6.3.3 The corrosion protection of screws, clips, and anchors used in the framing shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Corrosion Protection of Fasteners and Connectorsselect
Mechanically deposited or electrodeposited zinc coating
Hot-dip galvanized coating conforming to ASTM A153
Proprietary coating qualified by salt-spray testing to ASTM B117
Type 410 stainless steel
Type 304 stainless steel
Type 316 stainless steel
6.3.4 Where a coating qualified by salt-spray testing is furnished, the supplier shall submit the ASTM B117 exposure duration achieved without red rust.
6.3.5 Clip connectors, deflection tracks, bridging components, and hold-downs shall carry corrosion protection at least equal to that of the members they connect.
6.3.6 Stainless steel fasteners in contact with coated carbon steel members shall be selected so that galvanic corrosion of the member does not govern the life of the connection.

6.4 Coating Damage and Repair

6.4.1 Coating damaged by welding, field cutting, field drilling, abrasion, or handling shall be repaired within twenty-four hours of exposure.
6.4.2 Repair on zinc-coated members shall be performed under ASTM A780 with a zinc-rich material that restores galvanic protection.
NOTE The galvanic protection a zinc coating gives to a small scratch does not extend across a burned or ground area of any size, which is why a weld zone is repaired rather than left to the surrounding coating. (6.4.3)
6.4.4 Members with section loss from corrosion shall be rejected.
6.4.5 The Contractor shall bear the cost of coating repair made necessary by damage occurring after the members leave the supplier.

7 Framing Member Steel

7.1 Sheet Steel Specification

NOTE ASTM A1003 is the consolidated sheet steel specification for cold-formed framing members and designates structural grades as ST followed by the minimum yield strength in ksi and a type letter, so ST50H is a 50 ksi structural grade of Type H steel. (7.1.1)
NOTE The type letter distinguishes the steel by ductility, and AISI S100 limits both where the lower-ductility grades may be used and what yield strength may be taken in design for them. (7.1.2)
7.1.3 Structural framing members shall be formed from sheet steel conforming to ASTM A1003 or to another sheet steel specification permitted by AISI S100 for structural members.
7.1.4 Structural framing members shall be formed from Type H steel unless the Engineer of Record accepts a lower-ductility grade in writing for a specific member.
7.1.5 Where a sheet steel specification other than ASTM A1003 is furnished, the mill test report shall state the specification, the grade, and the metallic coating designation.

7.2 Minimum Yield Strength

7.2.1 The minimum yield strength of structural framing members shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Minimum Yield Strength of Structural Framing Membersrange
ksi
333740505580
7.2.2 The yield strength used in design shall be the value published in the manufacturer's section properties for the member furnished, and it shall be shown on the shop drawings.
NOTE The industry catalog is not uniform in yield strength across thicknesses: the thinner structural members are commonly stocked at 33 ksi and at 50 ksi, while the heavier thicknesses are commonly stocked only at 50 ksi. (7.2.3)
NOTE Setting a project-wide minimum of 50 ksi therefore narrows the available product at the thin end of the range, and setting 33 ksi leaves the heavier members free to be furnished at their catalog strength. (7.2.4)
NOTE Yield strengths above 50 ksi are furnished under sheet steel specifications outside the ASTM A1003 ST grades, and AISI S100 restricts the design yield strength that may be taken for steels not meeting its ductility criteria. (7.2.5)

7.3 Member Designation and Identification

NOTE The SFIA and SSMA designation system identifies a member with a four-part code giving web depth in hundredths of an inch, a letter for the member type, flange width in hundredths of an inch, and minimum base steel thickness in mils, so 600S162-54 is a 6 in. deep stud with a 1.625 in. flange formed from 54 mil steel. (7.3.1)
NOTE The type letters are S for stud and joist sections, T for track sections, U for channel sections, and F for furring channel sections, and track depth in the designation is the inside-to-inside dimension so that a track receives the stud of the same nominal depth. (7.3.2)
NOTE The mil designation replaced the gauge system because gauge numbers were never standardized between producers and because AISI S100 calculates capacity from the base steel thickness rather than from a coating-inclusive nominal thickness. (7.3.3)
NOTE A member called out only by gauge is ambiguous in a way that has produced real bidding and procurement errors, because the same gauge number corresponds to different minimum thicknesses in the structural and non-structural product lines. (7.3.4)
7.3.5 Framing members shall be specified and ordered by the four-part designation rather than by gauge.
7.3.6 Each member shall carry the manufacturer's legible identification of the designation, the minimum base steel thickness, the minimum yield strength, and the metallic coating designation.
7.3.7 Members whose identification is illegible or absent shall not be installed.

8 Wall Framing Members

8.1 Stud Web Depth

NOTE Web depth, flange width, thickness, and spacing are outputs of the wall design rather than product preferences, and each is answered by the structural drawings or by the reviewed delegated-design submittal for the wall in question. (8.1.1)
8.1.2 The stud web depth shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Structural Stud Web Depthrange
in.
2.53.53.62545.56810121416
Per drawings — the structural drawings (deferred by default)
8.1.3 Where the framing includes walls of more than one depth, the depth of each is shown on the reviewed shop drawings and the datasheet value states the governing minimum for the work.

8.2 Stud Flange Width

NOTE Flange width controls the local buckling capacity of the compression flange and the bearing area available for sheathing screws, so a wider flange buys capacity at high axial load and edge distance at closely spaced fasteners. (8.2.1)
8.2.2 The stud flange width shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Structural Stud Flange Widthrange
in.
1.251.3751.62522.53
Per drawings — the structural drawings (deferred by default)
8.2.3 Studs and tracks that are assembled together shall have compatible flange dimensions so that the stud seats fully within the track.

8.3 Base Steel Thickness

8.3.1 The minimum base steel thickness of structural framing members shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Minimum Base Steel Thickness of Structural Membersrange
mil
3343546897118
Per drawings — the structural drawings (deferred by default)
NOTE The thickness stated in the designation is the minimum base steel thickness before coating, and the delivered thickness including coating is greater. (8.3.2)
8.3.3 Delivered members shall be at not less than ninety-five percent of the design thickness used in the section properties, as AISI S240 requires.
8.3.4 Track shall be at least the thickness of the studs it receives unless the reviewed design establishes a thinner track for a specific condition.

8.4 Stud Spacing

8.4.1 The spacing of structural studs shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Structural Stud Spacingrange
in. o.c.
8121624
Per drawings — the structural drawings (deferred by default)
8.4.2 Stud spacing shall be held from a common end of each wall in every course of framing so that sheathing and board joints land on studs.
8.4.3 Spacing selected for structural capacity shall be reconciled with the spacing the cladding attachment and the listed fire-resistance-rated assembly require, and the closest of the three shall govern.
NOTE A wall can satisfy its structural spacing and still fail its listed assembly, because a fire-resistance listing was tested at a specific stud spacing and thickness that the listing does not permit a project to loosen. (8.4.4)

8.5 Track Sections

NOTE Track is a U-shaped section without return lips that receives the ends of studs at the head and base of a wall and distributes the stud reactions into the supporting construction. (8.5.1)
8.5.2 Tracks shall be furnished in lengths that place splices away from openings and away from the ends of walls.
8.5.3 Track splices shall be made with a splice detail shown on the reviewed shop drawings.
8.5.4 Track shall be seated tight against the supporting construction across its full width before it is anchored.
NOTE Gaps beneath a track leave the anchor to carry bending as well as shear and let the track deform under stud reactions that were designed to be delivered in direct bearing. (8.5.5)

9 Exterior Wall Framing

9.1 Framing Arrangement at the Building Perimeter

9.1.1 Requirements in this article apply where exterior wall framing is selected in the datasheet field for the framing assemblies in scope.
NOTE Exterior cold-formed steel wall framing is arranged in one of a few distinct ways, and the arrangement changes the stud length, the connection to the primary structure, the movement the head-of-wall connection must accommodate, and the thermal detailing at the slab edge. (9.1.2)
9.1.3 The arrangements of the exterior wall framing used in the work shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Exterior Wall Framing Arrangements Usedcheckbox
☐ Infill framing spanning between floor levels
☐ Bypass framing spanning past the slab edge
☐ Load-bearing exterior wall framing stacked at each level
9.1.4 Where more than one arrangement is used, the arrangement applicable to each wall shall be identified on the reviewed shop drawings.
NOTE Bypass framing carries its gravity load through a vertical load path that must be continuous to the foundation or to an intermediate support, and the slab edge it passes provides lateral restraint rather than bearing. (9.1.5)
NOTE Infill framing bears at each level, so the head-of-wall connection at every floor must release vertical movement of the structure above rather than transferring it into the wall. (9.1.6)
9.1.7 Where bypass framing is used, the attachment of the framing to the slab edge shall be designed for the lateral reaction without restraining the vertical movement the design requires.
9.1.8 The thermal performance of the assembly at the slab edge shall be evaluated under AISI S250 and coordinated with Building Thermal InsulationBuilding Thermal InsulationResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/building-thermal-insulation.

9.2 Out-of-Plane Deflection Limit

NOTE The out-of-plane deflection limit for wind-bearing exterior wall framing is set by what the framing supports rather than by the framing itself, because the stud is serviceable at deflections that crack a rigid cladding. (9.2.1)
NOTE Rigid and brittle claddings tolerate the least movement, and published guidance for masonry veneer on cold-formed steel framing now supports limits across a range rather than a single value, so the limit is selected against the specific cladding and its joint detailing. (9.2.2)
9.2.3 The out-of-plane deflection limit for wind-bearing wall framing under service-level wind load shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Out-of-Plane Deflection Limit for Wind-Bearing Wall Framingradio
○ L/120
○ L/180
○ L/240
○ L/360
○ L/480
○ L/600
○ L/720
9.2.4 Where a wall carries more than one cladding type, the most restrictive limit applicable to any cladding on that wall shall govern for the full wall.
9.2.5 Where a deflection limit stricter than the datasheet selection applies to a specific wall, that limit is the exterior wall sections and governs for that wall.
9.2.6 The deflection limit shall be applied to the service-level wind pressure and not to the strength-level pressure, and the shop drawings shall state which pressure the calculations used.
NOTE Reporting a deflection check against a strength-level pressure understates the movement the cladding will actually see by the load factor, which is a silent error because the member still passes its strength check. (9.2.7)

9.3 Cladding Attachment Coordination

9.3.1 Cladding attachment points shall land on framing members at the spacing the cladding requires.
9.3.2 Masonry veneer anchors shall engage the studs at the spacing established under Masonry Anchorage And VeneerMasonry Anchorage and VeneerResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/masonry-anchorage-and-veneer.
9.3.3 The framing installer and the cladding installer shall confirm at the pre-installation conference that no cladding attachment crosses a movement joint in the framing.
NOTE Cladding fixed rigidly across a head-of-wall movement joint defeats the movement accommodation the framing was designed to provide and transfers structural deflection directly into the cladding. (9.3.4)

10 Movement at the Head of Wall

10.1 Movement to Be Accommodated

10.1.1 The movement that the head-of-wall connection is required to accommodate shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Movement to Be Accommodated at the Head of Wallradio
○ None, because the framing is fixed to the structure above
○ Vertical deflection of the structure above
○ Vertical deflection of the structure above and in-plane lateral drift
NOTE A load-bearing wall is fixed at its head because it is part of the vertical load path, while a non-load-bearing wall extending to the underside of the structure above must release that structure's deflection or it becomes an unintended column. (10.1.2)
10.1.3 Where in-plane drift is accommodated, the connection shall permit the drift stated in the contract documents without loss of the out-of-plane restraint the stud requires.
10.1.4 The head-of-wall connection shall be shown on the reviewed shop drawings for every wall condition in the work.

10.2 Head-of-Wall Connection Type

10.2.1 The type of head-of-wall connection shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Head-of-Wall Connection Typeselect
Deep-leg deflection track with the studs unattached to the track legs
Slotted deflection track fastened to each stud through the slots
Nested double-track assembly
Proprietary slide clip at each stud
Proprietary drift clip at each stud
Fixed track fastened to each stud
10.2.2 Where a proprietary connector is furnished, the reviewed evaluation report shall establish its capacity and its rated movement.
10.2.3 Studs at a deflection track shall be cut to leave the design clearance at the head of the wall.
NOTE A stud cut long enough to bear against the inside of the deflection track transfers the full deflection of the structure above into the wall regardless of how the track was rated. (10.2.4)
10.2.5 Sheathing, gypsum board, and finishes shall not be fastened across the head-of-wall movement joint.

10.3 Vertical Movement Capacity

10.3.1 The vertical movement capacity provided at the head of wall shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Vertical Movement Capacity at the Head of Wallrange
in.
0.50.7511.523
Per drawings — the structural drawings (deferred by default)
10.3.2 The movement capacity provided shall equal or exceed the calculated deflection of the structure above the wall stated in the contract documents.
NOTE A capacity of zero states an intentionally fixed head-of-wall condition and is selected where the wall is part of the vertical load path. (10.3.3)
10.3.4 Where the wall occurs in a fire-resistance-rated assembly, the head-of-wall joint system shall be listed for at least the movement capacity selected and shall be installed under FirestoppingFirestoppingResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/firestopping.
NOTE A rated head-of-wall joint system is listed with a movement class, so a joint that moves further than the listing permits is no longer a tested assembly even though the framing is correct. (10.3.5)

11 Floor, Roof, and Truss Framing

11.1 Cold-Formed Steel Joist and Rafter Framing

11.1.1 Requirements in this article apply where floor joist, roof rafter, or truss framing is selected in the datasheet field for the framing assemblies in scope.
NOTE Cold-formed steel joists are deeper C-sections with wider flanges than wall studs, and they are selected from the manufacturer's span tables for the actual span, spacing, and loading rather than designed member by member on most projects. (11.1.2)
11.1.3 Joists and rafters shall be selected or designed under AISI S100 and AISI S240 for the spans, spacings, and loads stated in the contract documents.
11.1.4 Joist and rafter bearing conditions, including bearing stiffeners and web crippling reinforcement, shall be detailed on the reviewed shop drawings.
NOTE Web crippling at a bearing point governs more cold-formed joist designs than bending does, because the thin web carries the reaction over a short bearing length. (11.1.5)
11.1.6 Joists and rafters shall be laterally braced on both flanges at the spacing the reviewed design requires until the sheathing and ceiling are installed.
11.1.7 Openings in a cold-formed steel floor or roof framing system shall be framed with headers designed for the reactions of the interrupted members.

11.2 Floor Deflection and Vibration

11.2.1 The live-load deflection limit for cold-formed steel floor framing shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Floor Framing Live-Load Deflection Limitradio
○ L/240
● L/360
○ L/480
○ L/600
NOTE A cold-formed steel floor is light and lightly damped, so it can satisfy every strength and deflection limit and still be objectionable to walk on. Deflection limits do not predict vibration response, which depends on mass, damping, and natural frequency. (11.2.2)
11.2.3 The floor vibration requirement shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Floor Vibration Requirementradio
○ No vibration analysis required
○ Vibration analysis performed against the criterion stated in the contract documents
11.2.4 Where vibration analysis is required, the analysis shall address the occupancy stated in the contract documents and shall report the predicted response against the acceptance criterion used.
11.2.5 Where the vibration analysis governs the framing selection, the resulting member and spacing shall be recorded on the shop drawings so that a lighter member is not proposed later on strength grounds.

11.3 Truss Assemblies

NOTE Cold-formed steel truss design provisions were consolidated into AISI S240, so a truss assembly is designed under the same framing standard as the walls that carry it. (11.3.1)
11.3.2 Truss assemblies shall be designed under AISI S240 by the specialty engineer for the loads stated in the contract documents.
11.3.3 Truss layout, bearing locations, permanent bracing, and connections to the supporting framing shall be shown on the sealed truss shop drawings.
11.3.4 Permanent truss bracing shall be installed before construction loads are placed on the truss system.
11.3.5 Trusses shall not be field modified, cut, or notched.
NOTE A truss chord and web are proportioned close to their capacity, so cutting one to clear a duct changes the assembly's capacity rather than merely marking it. (11.3.6)

12 Bridging, Bracing, and Blocking

12.1 Bridging Method

NOTE Bridging restrains a stud against rotation and weak-axis buckling between its end supports, and the capacity published for a member assumes the bridging its design requires is installed and anchored. (12.1.1)
NOTE Structural studs are punched with knockouts in the web at regular intervals so that a channel or bar can pass through every stud in a wall and be fixed to each one. (12.1.2)
12.1.3 The bridging and bracing methods used in the work shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Bridging and Bracing Methods Usedcheckbox
☐ Cold-rolled channel through the stud knockouts with clip angles at each stud
☐ Proprietary bridging bar and clip system through the stud knockouts
☐ Flat steel strap on both flanges with periodic solid blocking
☐ Solid blocking between studs
☐ Sheathing-braced design under AISI S240
12.1.4 Strap bracing shall be installed on both flanges of the stud and shall be terminated at solid blocking or at a braced end condition.
NOTE Strap bracing on one flange only restrains translation but not rotation, so a stud strapped on a single face can still roll between bracing points. (12.1.5)
12.1.6 Bridging shall be continuous through the length of the wall and shall be anchored at each end to a member capable of resisting the accumulated bracing force.
NOTE A bridging line anchored only to the studs it crosses braces nothing, because the whole row can translate together. The anchorage is what converts a row of bridging into restraint. (12.1.7)
12.1.8 Bridging shall not be omitted, relocated, or reduced from the reviewed shop drawings without the written approval of the specialty engineer and the Engineer of Record.

12.2 Bridging Spacing

12.2.1 The maximum vertical spacing of bridging rows shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Maximum Vertical Spacing of Bridging Rowsrange
ft o.c.
234568
Per drawings — the structural drawings (deferred by default)
12.2.2 Bridging shall additionally be installed within the distance of the head-of-wall connection that the connector's evaluation report requires.
NOTE A slide or drift clip releases the stud at its head, so the first bridging row below that connection is what holds the stud against rotation where it is least restrained. (12.2.3)

12.3 Sheathing-Braced Design

12.3.1 Requirements in this article apply where sheathing-braced design is selected in the datasheet field for the bridging and bracing methods used.
NOTE A sheathing-braced design relies on the sheathing and its fastener pattern to restrain the stud, so the sheathing becomes a structural component whose substitution is a design change. (12.3.2)
12.3.3 Sheathing relied upon for bracing shall be identified on the reviewed shop drawings by material, thickness, fastener type, and fastener spacing.
12.3.4 Sheathing relied upon for bracing shall be installed before the construction loads that the braced condition assumes are applied.
12.3.5 Sheathing material, thickness, fastener type, or fastener spacing shall not be substituted in the field.
12.3.6 Where sheathing is applied to only one face of a sheathing-braced wall, the design shall state how the unsheathed face is restrained.

13 Lateral Force Resisting System

13.1 Role of the Cold-Formed Steel Framing

13.1.1 The role of the cold-formed steel framing in the lateral force resisting system shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Role of the Cold-Formed Steel Framing in the Lateral Force Resisting Systemradio
○ The framing does not participate in the lateral force resisting system
○ The framing includes shear walls or braced walls designed under AISI S240
○ The framing includes a seismic force-resisting system designed under AISI S400
13.1.2 Where the framing participates in the lateral force resisting system, the design basis for that system is the lateral force resisting system plans.
NOTE Framing that carries only its tributary out-of-plane load is designed under AISI S240 alone, while framing that collects and delivers story shear takes on chord, collector, hold-down, and anchorage demands that the wall design must address explicitly. (13.1.3)

13.2 Shear Wall and Braced Wall Type

13.2.1 Requirements in this article apply where the framing is selected in the datasheet to include shear walls, braced walls, or a seismic force-resisting system.
13.2.2 The shear wall and braced wall types used in the work shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Shear Wall and Braced Wall Types Usedcheckbox
☐ Wood structural panel sheathed shear walls
☐ Steel sheet sheathed shear walls
☐ Gypsum board panel sheathed shear walls
☐ Fiberboard panel sheathed shear walls
☐ Flat strap diagonal braced walls
NOTE The in-plane shear capacity of a sheathed cold-formed steel wall is governed by the fastener pattern at the panel edges rather than by the framing members, so an edge screw spacing changed by one increment changes the wall's rated capacity. (13.2.3)
13.2.4 Panel edge and field fastener spacing shall be as shown on the reviewed shop drawings and shall not be substituted in the field.
13.2.5 Hold-downs and their anchorage shall be installed at each end of every shear wall segment before the wall is sheathed.
13.2.6 Chord studs, collectors, and drag struts shall be identified as such on the reviewed shop drawings.
13.2.7 Sheathing on a shear wall shall not be concealed until the fastener pattern, the hold-downs, and the anchorage have been inspected.

13.3 Seismic Detailing Under AISI S400

13.3.1 Requirements in this article apply where a seismic force-resisting system designed under AISI S400 is selected in the datasheet field for the role of the framing.
13.3.2 The seismic force-resisting system shall be designed and detailed under AISI S400 in addition to AISI S240.
13.3.3 Members and connections designated as protected by the capacity design provisions of AISI S400 shall be identified on the reviewed shop drawings.
13.3.4 Field substitution of a member, a fastener, or a sheathing material within a designated seismic force-resisting system shall not be made.
NOTE A capacity-designed system relies on one element yielding while the elements around it stay elastic, so substituting a heavier member inside that system can move the yielding somewhere it was not intended and is not a conservative change. (13.3.5)

14 Connections

14.1 Connection Methods Permitted

NOTE Cold-formed steel framing connections are made by several methods that are all recognized by AISI S240 and all in routine use, and the method that suits a project follows from the shop-versus-field split, the substrate, the coating, and the labor available. (14.1.1)
14.1.2 The connection methods permitted in the work shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Connection Methods Permitted for Steel-to-Steel Framing Connectionscheckbox
☐ Self-drilling tapping screws conforming to ASTM C1513
☐ Arc welds qualified under AWS D1.3
☐ Powder-actuated fasteners
☐ Pneumatically driven pins
☐ Press-joining, also called clinching
☐ Structural bolts
14.1.3 The capacity of every connection shall be established by AISI S100 or by a current evaluation report for the fastener and the connected thicknesses.
14.1.4 Connection type, size, quantity, and spacing shall be shown on the reviewed shop drawings for every connection in the framing.
14.1.5 A method not selected in the datasheet shall not be used without the Engineer of Record's written approval.

14.2 Screw Connections

14.2.1 Requirements in this article apply where self-drilling tapping screws are selected in the datasheet field for the connection methods permitted.
14.2.2 Self-drilling tapping screws for steel-to-steel framing connections shall conform to ASTM C1513.
14.2.3 The screw size for structural steel-to-steel connections shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Screw Size for Structural Steel-to-Steel Connectionsselect
No. 8
No. 10
No. 12
No. 14
1/4 in. diameter
Per drawings — the reviewed shop drawings (deferred by default)
14.2.4 Screw length shall be sufficient to extend at least three exposed threads beyond the last connected member.
14.2.5 Screw spacing, edge distance, and end distance shall comply with the connection provisions of AISI S100 and with the fastener manufacturer's published values.
14.2.6 Screws shall be driven perpendicular to the connected surfaces and shall be seated without stripping the connected material.
NOTE An over-driven screw strips the thread it just cut and leaves a connection with a fraction of its published pull-out capacity while looking identical to a sound one. (14.2.7)
14.2.8 Stripped, tilted, backed-out, or missing screws shall be replaced with a new screw in sound material adjacent to the failed location.

14.3 Welded Connections

14.3.1 Requirements in this article apply where arc welds are selected in the datasheet field for the connection methods permitted.
14.3.2 Welded connections in cold-formed members shall conform to AWS D1.3.
14.3.3 Welding shall not be performed on material thinner than the minimum thickness the reviewed welding procedure specification qualifies.
14.3.4 The metallic coating shall be removed from the immediate weld area by mechanical means before welding.
NOTE Zinc entering the weld pool produces porosity and reduces the strength of a weld that looks acceptable from the surface, which is why the coating is removed rather than burned through. (14.3.5)
14.3.6 Welding fumes from metallic-coated sheet shall be controlled by ventilation or extraction at the arc.
14.3.7 Coating removed or damaged by welding shall be restored under the coating repair requirements of this standard.

14.4 Powder-Actuated and Pneumatically Driven Fasteners

14.4.1 Requirements in this article apply where powder-actuated fasteners or pneumatically driven pins are selected in the datasheet field for the connection methods permitted.
14.4.2 Powder-actuated fasteners and pneumatically driven pins shall be installed only where a current evaluation report establishes their capacity in the substrate and connected thicknesses of the actual condition.
NOTE The capacity of a powder-actuated fastener in concrete depends on the concrete strength, the embedment achieved, and the proximity of reinforcement, so a tested value for one condition is not transferable to another. (14.4.3)
14.4.4 Fasteners shall be installed at not less than the minimum edge distance, spacing, and base material thickness the evaluation report states.
14.4.5 Fasteners driven into concrete shall not be installed where they would strike reinforcement, post-tensioning tendons, or embedded conduit.
14.4.6 The location of post-tensioning tendons and embedded services shall be verified before driven fasteners are installed in a post-tensioned or congested slab.
14.4.7 Every driven fastener shall be inspected after installation for correct standoff and embedment, and fasteners that did not set shall be removed and replaced at an adjacent location.

14.5 Anchorage of Track to the Supporting Construction

14.5.1 The methods used to anchor track to concrete, masonry, and structural steel shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Track Anchorage Methods Usedcheckbox
☐ Powder-actuated fasteners
☐ Pneumatically driven pins
☐ Post-installed expansion anchors
☐ Post-installed screw anchors
☐ Adhesive anchors
☐ Cast-in anchor bolts
☐ Welds to embedded plates or to structural steel
☐ Self-drilling tapping screws to structural steel
14.5.2 Anchor type, size, embedment, and spacing shall be shown on the reviewed shop drawings.
14.5.3 Anchors shall be installed within 2 in. of each end of every track section and at each side of every opening.
NOTE An unanchored track end is free to lift and rotate under the reaction of the first stud, which is why the end anchor is placed regardless of the calculated spacing. (14.5.4)
14.5.5 Anchorage in concrete and masonry shall be installed after the substrate has reached the strength the anchor design assumes.
14.5.6 Anchors installed in a location that proves unsuitable shall be removed or abandoned in place under a detail furnished by the Engineer of Record, and the hole shall be filled.

14.6 Clip Connectors

14.6.1 Clip connectors joining framing to the primary structure or to other framing shall be selected from the manufacturer's published capacities for the actual connected thicknesses and fastener pattern.
14.6.2 Clip connectors shall be selected to transfer the calculated forces without imposing rotational restraint where the design requires rotational freedom.
14.6.3 Proprietary clip connectors shall be installed with the fastener type, quantity, and hole pattern that the evaluation report establishes for the published capacity.
NOTE Filling every hole in a proprietary clip is not always correct and leaving holes empty is not always wrong, because the published capacity corresponds to a specific pattern that the evaluation report defines. (14.6.4)
14.6.5 Clips shall not be field modified by cutting, drilling, or bending.

15 Openings and Built-Up Members

15.1 Jamb Framing at Openings

15.1.1 Opening locations, sizes, and rough opening dimensions are the framing plans and opening details.
NOTE An opening interrupts studs whose load must be carried around it, so the jamb, header, sill, and cripple framing together replace a load path rather than merely trimming a hole. (15.1.2)
15.1.3 The jamb framing configuration at openings shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Jamb Framing Configuration at Openingsselect
Single stud at each jamb
Two studs connected back to back
Two studs connected flange to flange as a boxed section
Built-up section of three or more studs
Rolled shape or structural tube furnished under the structural steel work
Per drawings — the structural drawings (deferred by default)
15.1.4 Jamb framing shall be designed for the load transferred from the interrupted studs above the opening in addition to its own tributary load.
15.1.5 Jamb framing at a door frame shall be solidly blocked to the base track and to the header so that door swing and closing loads are not carried by the track alone.
15.1.6 Jamb studs shall be at least the base steel thickness of the adjacent field studs.
15.1.7 Door frame anchorage to the jamb framing shall be coordinated with Doors Frames And HardwareDoors, Frames, and HardwareResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/doors-frames-and-hardware.

15.2 Header and Sill Framing

15.2.1 Headers shall be designed for the reactions of the interrupted studs and for the tributary load above the opening.
15.2.2 Sill members at window openings shall be designed for the load transferred from the cripple studs below the opening.
15.2.3 Cripple studs shall be installed at the field stud spacing above headers and below sills so that the sheathing and cladding attachment pattern continues across the opening.
15.2.4 Header and sill members shall be connected to the jamb framing with a detail shown on the reviewed shop drawings.
NOTE Bearing at the header-to-jamb connection is a web crippling condition in a thin section, and it is the location where an opening most often fails to deliver its design capacity. (15.2.5)

15.3 Built-Up Section Assembly

15.3.1 Built-up sections shall be assembled with the fastener type, spacing, and pattern shown on the reviewed shop drawings.
15.3.2 The individual members of a built-up section shall be in contact along the length that the design assumes composite behavior.
NOTE Two studs stitched together at wide spacing behave as two separate members rather than as one built-up section, so the stitch spacing is a structural requirement and not a fabrication convenience. (15.3.3)
15.3.4 Built-up sections shall be assembled before erection wherever the assembly can be lifted into place, so that the stitch connections are made under controlled access.

16 Web Penetrations and Field Modification

16.1 Penetrations Through Member Webs

16.1.1 Penetrations for piping, conduit, and cabling shall use the manufacturer's factory-punched knockouts wherever the required routing allows.
16.1.2 Field-cut web penetrations shall not exceed the size, spacing, or location limits established by AISI S100 for the member or by the manufacturer's published values for a proprietary section, whichever is more restrictive.
16.1.3 Field-cut web penetrations shall be made by mechanical means.
16.1.4 Torch cutting of cold-formed steel framing shall not be performed.
NOTE Torch cutting distorts the section, destroys the coating well beyond the cut, and produces an opening whose actual size and edge condition no design provision covers. (16.1.5)
16.1.6 A web penetration exceeding the permitted limits shall be reinforced under a detail furnished by the specialty engineer or the Engineer of Record before the member is loaded.

16.2 Modifications That Shall Not Be Made

16.2.1 Flanges and return lips of structural members shall not be notched, cut, or drilled.
NOTE The flange and its return lip carry the compression in a bending member, and a notch there removes the element the section relies on to avoid local buckling. (16.2.2)
16.2.3 Structural members shall not be spliced except with a splice detail shown on the reviewed shop drawings.
16.2.4 Studs shall not be cut short and shimmed to fit a framing error.
16.2.5 Members that have been kinked, twisted, or bent shall not be straightened in the field and reinstalled.
16.2.6 An unauthorized field modification shall be reported to the Engineer of Record, and the affected member shall be evaluated before it is loaded or concealed.
16.2.7 The Contractor shall bear the cost of evaluating and correcting an unauthorized field modification.

17 Installation

17.1 Layout and Track Placement

17.1.1 Framing shall be laid out from the project control points established by the Contractor.
17.1.2 Base and head tracks shall be set, aligned, and anchored before studs are installed.
NOTE Track alignment shall be verified against the wall layout before anchors are installed, because correcting an anchored track means abandoning anchors in the substrate. (17.1.3)
17.1.4 Framing shall comply with the installation requirements of AISI S240 and ASTM C1007.

17.2 Stud Placement and Bearing

17.2.1 Studs shall be seated squarely in the track with the stud web in full contact with the track web at bearing conditions.
17.2.2 Studs in load-bearing walls shall be aligned vertically with the framing above and below so that the axial load path is continuous.
17.2.3 Where a stud cannot align with the framing above, the track and its supporting construction shall be designed for the eccentric load, and the condition shall be shown on the reviewed shop drawings.
NOTE Off-alignment bearing puts the reaction into the track web in bending rather than into the stud below in direct bearing, which is a different and much weaker load path. (17.2.4)
17.2.5 Studs in load-bearing walls shall be fastened to both the base and head tracks.
17.2.6 Studs at a deflection track shall be fastened to the base track only and shall remain free to move within the head-of-wall connection.

17.3 Erection Tolerances

17.3.1 The plumb tolerance for erected studs shall be as indicated in the datasheet.
Stud Plumb Toleranceselect
1/8 in. in 10 ft
1/16 in. in 10 ft
17.3.2 Erected framing shall be within the erection tolerances of AISI S202 for position, elevation, spacing, and alignment.
17.3.3 Framing outside tolerance shall be corrected before sheathing, board, or cladding is applied.
NOTE A stud that is out of plane telegraphs through finished board and through most cladding systems, so the tolerance check is made before concealment rather than at final inspection. (17.3.4)
17.3.5 Framing that cannot be brought within tolerance shall be reported to the Engineer of Record for a written disposition.

17.4 Bridging Installation Sequence

17.4.1 Bridging shall be installed at the spacing and locations shown on the reviewed shop drawings before sheathing, board, or cladding is applied.
17.4.2 Cold-rolled channel bridging shall pass through the knockout of every stud in a continuous line and shall be fastened to each stud with a clip.
17.4.3 Bridging at the end of a wall and at each side of an opening shall be tied back to a solidly blocked stud or to the jamb framing.
17.4.4 Construction loads shall not be placed on a framed floor or roof system until the bridging and bracing that system requires is installed and anchored.

17.5 Coordination With Other Trades

17.5.1 The framing installer shall coordinate with concrete placement for cast-in anchors and embeds, with structural steel erection for clip attachments, with mechanical, electrical, plumbing, and low-voltage rough-in for web penetrations, and with the sheathing, cladding, board, and firestopping trades for the sequence in which each assembly is closed.
17.5.2 Rough-in shall be routed through knockouts and shall not require field-cut penetrations beyond the permitted limits.
17.5.3 The framing installer shall not relocate, remove, or modify framing to accommodate another trade's rough-in without the Engineer of Record's written approval.
NOTE Framing cut by another trade to clear a duct or a pipe is the most common unauthorized modification on a project, and it is discovered after the wall is closed unless the inspection before concealment looks for it. (17.5.4)

18 Fire-Resistance-Rated Assemblies

18.1 Listed Design Compliance

18.1.1 Required fire-resistance ratings and the listed designs that satisfy them are the fire-resistance-rated assembly schedule.
NOTE A fire-resistance rating belongs to a whole tested assembly, which includes the stud designation and spacing, the board type and layers, the fastener pattern, the cavity condition, and the perimeter joint treatment. No single component of it carries a rating on its own. (18.1.2)
18.1.3 Assemblies shall be constructed to the listed design identified in the contract documents.
18.1.4 The stud designation, base steel thickness, and spacing used in a rated assembly shall be confirmed against the listing before the framing is ordered.
18.1.5 A component of a listed assembly shall not be substituted without either selecting a different listed design or obtaining a written engineering evaluation acceptable to the authority having jurisdiction.
NOTE A rated assembly may require a heavier member or a closer spacing than the structural design does, because the listing records what was tested rather than what is structurally sufficient. (18.1.6)
18.1.7 The rated assemblies themselves are specified under Fire Rated Wall And Floor AssembliesFire-Resistance-Rated AssembliesResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/fire-rated-wall-and-floor-assemblies, and applied fireproofing on cold-formed members under FireproofingApplied FireproofingResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/fireproofing.

18.2 Head-of-Wall Joints and Penetrations in Rated Assemblies

18.2.1 Head-of-wall joint systems and penetration firestop systems in rated assemblies shall be installed under FirestoppingFirestoppingResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/firestopping.
18.2.2 The head-of-wall joint system selected shall be listed for the wall assembly, for the structure above, and for the movement capacity provided at that wall.
18.2.3 The framing installer shall leave the head-of-wall joint at the design dimension and shall not fill it.
NOTE A head-of-wall joint filled by the framing installer to close a gap defeats both the movement accommodation and the listed joint system, and the failure is invisible after the board is hung. (18.2.4)

19 Field Inspection

19.1 Inspection Before Concealment

19.1.1 The Contractor shall inspect each framed assembly before sheathing, board, or cladding conceals it.
19.1.2 The inspection shall verify that member designations and thicknesses match the reviewed shop drawings, that spacing matches the drawings and the listed assembly, that studs are plumb and seated in track, that bridging is installed and anchored, that opening framing is complete, that fasteners are present and correctly seated, that head-of-wall movement joints are open at their design dimension, and that coating damage has been repaired.
19.1.3 The inspection shall be documented and the record shall be available to the Engineer of Record and to the special inspector.

19.2 Welded Connection Inspection

19.2.1 Inspection requirements in this article apply to the welded connections made where arc welds are selected in the datasheet.
19.2.2 Welds in structural cold-formed members shall be visually inspected under AWS D1.3 by a qualified inspector.
19.2.3 Visual inspection shall verify weld size, length, and location, fusion at the weld toes, and freedom from cracks, burn-through, undercut, and blowout.
NOTE Volumetric nondestructive examination is not generally meaningful on sheet steel because the section is too thin to interpret, which is why visual inspection is the governing method for cold-formed welds. (19.2.4)
19.2.5 Defective welds shall be repaired by a qualified welder and shall be re-inspected after repair.
19.2.6 The party whose work was rejected shall bear the cost of re-inspection.

19.3 Shear Wall Fastener Inspection

19.3.1 Inspection requirements in this article apply to the shear walls, braced walls, and seismic force-resisting system elements selected in the datasheet.
19.3.2 The fastener pattern at panel edges and at field studs shall be inspected before the sheathing is concealed.
19.3.3 Inspection shall verify the fastener type and size, the edge and field spacing, the edge distance, and that fasteners are seated flush without over-driving.
19.3.4 Hold-down installation and anchorage shall be inspected before the wall is sheathed.
19.3.5 Sheathing concealed before its fastener inspection shall be opened for inspection at the Contractor's cost.

19.4 Nonconforming Framing Work

19.4.1 Framing work that does not conform to the contract documents, the reviewed shop drawings, or AISI S240 shall be documented as a nonconformance and reported in writing to the Engineer of Record, the Contractor, and the Owner.
19.4.2 Construction loads shall not be placed on a documented nonconformance until the Engineer of Record has issued a written disposition.
19.4.3 Each disposition shall be one of the following: reject and replace, accept as-is supported by a written engineering evaluation, or accept with a stated compensating measure such as added bridging or a supplemental connection.
19.4.4 The cost of evaluating and correcting a nonconformance shall be borne by the party whose work produced it.

20 Delivery, Storage, and Handling

20.1 Delivery and Site Storage

20.1.1 Framing shall be delivered in the manufacturer's bundles, each marked with the member designation, base steel thickness, yield strength, coating designation, and quantity.
20.1.2 Site storage shall satisfy the requirements indicated in the datasheet.
Site Storage Requirementscheckbox
☑ Store on dunnage clear of the ground
☑ Arrange bundles to drain
☑ Cover to exclude weather while permitting air circulation
☑ Loosen or remove sealed wrapping on arrival
☐ Separate members by designation and thickness
☐ Store long members with intermediate support to prevent permanent set
NOTE Bundled zinc-coated framing that stays wet with no air movement between the members develops white rust within hours, because the zinc oxidizes without the carbon dioxide it needs to form the stable protective film. (20.1.3)
20.1.4 Members shall be unloaded and handled so that no member is kinked, twisted, dented, or racked.
20.1.5 Members shall be lifted rather than dragged across the ground or across other members.

20.2 Damaged Members

20.2.1 Members showing white rust shall be inspected before installation.
NOTE Light white rust that wipes clean is a surface deposit, while a heavy deposit indicates that zinc has been consumed and the coating no longer provides the design protection. (20.2.2)
20.2.3 Members with heavy white rust, with section loss from corrosion, or with kinks, twists, or web dents shall be rejected.
20.2.4 Members with coating damage beyond the limits of repair under ASTM A780 shall be reported to the Engineer of Record for a written disposition.
20.2.5 Rejected members shall be removed from the site or clearly marked and segregated so that they are not installed.

21 Warranty and Correction Period

21.1 Correction Period

21.1.1 The framing supplier and the installer shall each warrant their work for the period indicated in the datasheet, measured from the date of substantial completion.
Correction Period for Framing Supply and Installationrange
years
1235
21.1.2 The framing supplier shall warrant the members and accessories against defects in material and manufacturing, including base steel thickness, yield strength, coating designation, and section properties not matching the published values.
21.1.3 The installer shall warrant the installation, including member layout, bridging completeness, fastener installation, plumbness and alignment, movement joints left free to move, and coating damage caused by installation operations.
21.1.4 Where a warranted defect is corrected, the corrected work shall carry a fresh correction period of the same length measured from the date of the correction, or the remainder of the original period, whichever ends later.
21.1.5 The party performing a warranty correction shall bear the cost of removing and replacing other work that must be disturbed to reach the defect.
21.1.6 The form of the warranty documents and any bonds are established under Warranties And BondsWarranties and BondsResolves to the current adopted revision.sync/warranties-and-bonds.

21.2 Warranty Exclusions

21.2.1 The warranty does not cover loading beyond the design loads stated in the contract documents.
21.2.2 The warranty does not cover unauthorized field modification of a framing member.
21.2.3 The warranty does not cover damage caused by the work of other trades after the framing installer has completed and turned over an assembly.
21.2.4 The warranty does not cover corrosion caused by water entering the assembly through the building envelope.
21.2.5 Where the parties disagree whether corrosion originated in an envelope leak or in a coating deficiency, the Engineer of Record shall make the initial determination.